Abstract
While the commercialization and diversification of agricultural and livestock systems have been identified as key global strategies for climate change adaptation and mitigation, less is known as to the large-scale gendered impacts that are implicated in these transformations among smallholder crop and livestock farmers. This study explores these gender impacts across different farming systems and gender-respondent-household typologies using data from the Rural Household Multiple Indicator Survey (RHoMIS) in 2,859 households in three East African countries – Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. Female control scores over incomes or foodstuffs produced through both on and off farm activities were highest in farming systems that had more land and more livestock. However, increasing commercialization – defined herein as the increasing importance of crop and livestock sales to farm households – resulted in an overall decline in female control across all farming systems and gender-respondent-household typologies. In contrast, crop and livestock diversification were positively associated with female control across gender-respondent-household typologies. Analysis of specific crops and livestock products across farming systems and respondent typologies revealed women have far greater control over decisions related to consumption than decisions related to sales, although the gap between the two were less pronounced in lesser-valued livestock products (chickens, eggs). However, the analyses suggest that as sale of crops and livestock increase, female control over these areas could likely diminish, regardless of specific activity. The authors conclude that approaches to adapt to or mitigate climate change that rely on increasing market orientation of smallholder production will likely intensify men’s control over benefits from production, whereas diversification will likely have a more positive impact on female control. Thus, climate adaptation strategies promoting increased diversification will likely have a more positive impact on women smallholders than commercialization alone. The authors recommend that when commercialization is the target intervention, it must be accompanied by a gender differentiated analysis of trade-offs and risks to mitigate the potential negative consequences shown in this study.
Highlights
Commercialization and diversification of smallholder farm production have been identified as key global development strategies in assisting farmers adapt to and mitigate climate change1
Climate change adaptation is related to the adoption of social and/or technical practices that buffer production/profitability against climate driven shocks, to reduce the impact of climate change. 2While smallholder farmer intensification is driven by many factors, including but not limited to access to markets, technology, population density, and economic, political, and social change, this study focuses on crop and livestock commercialization and diversification as they are implicated in climate change adaptation and mitigation to align with Frontiers special issue research topic on “The Feasibility of Large-Scale Action for Adaption and Mitigation”
While there is a growing area of quantitative scholarship around gender and climate change (Mason et al, 2014; Perez et al, 2015; Tibesigwa and Visser, 2016; Assan et al, 2018), these studies have used binary household headship as their level of gender data disaggregation and eschewed more in-depth respondent analysis. To address these topical concerns and methodological gaps, this study aims to explore the relationships between female control and three on-farm climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies in East Africa using a large dataset collected using the Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey (RHoMIS)
Summary
Commercialization and diversification of smallholder farm production have been identified as key global development strategies in assisting farmers adapt to and mitigate climate change. Commercialization strategies in agriculture and livestock production are theorized to increase farmer’s income, a benefit linked to furthering the goals of poverty alleviation, enhanced food security, and emission reduction goals through intensified livestock production practices (Edmunds et al, 2013; Farnworth et al, 2017). While these studies laud the impressive environmental and economic benefits associated with diversification and commercialization, less is known as to the large-scale gendered impacts that are implicated in these transformations among smallholder farmers. There is growing concern that these shifts in market and on-farm practices could potentially disenfranchise women by intensifying men’s control over decision-making in these areas (Chanamuto and Hall, 2015; Rao, 2016)
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