Integrating selective attention into developmental pedestrian safety research.

Abstract

Abstract Pedestrian injury affects thousands of Canadian children many of whom die as a result of related accidents. Pedestrian behaviours involve numerous cognitive development factors that influence the interaction between child and environment. One such cognitive factor is selective attention. Guided by a cognitive framework, this paper explores links between the development of selective attention and children's pedestrian behaviours, and suggests future directions for the inclusion of selective attention in pedestrian safety research. Links Between Development and Selective Attention in Pedestrian Injury Risk Thousands of children between the ages of 5 and 9 are killed or injured as pedestrians each year (Canadian Institute of Child Health, 2000; National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2005; U.S. Department of Transportation, 2001). In addition to injury or loss of life, pediatric pedestrian injuries cost more than $10 billion annually (National Safety Council, 2001). Although recent work has led to progress in understanding risk factors for pedestrian injury (Schwebel & Barton, 2005), there is still much to be learned. The etiology of pedestrian injuries is complex, involving multiple child risk factors (Schwebel & Barton, 2005) and interactions with environmental variables (Barton & Schwebel, 2006b). Gender, for example, is a risk factor with the rate of pedestrian injury being higher among boys (Assailly, 1997; Durkin, Laraque, Lubman, & Barlow, 1999; Macpherson, Roberts, & Pless, 1998). Another risk factor is temperamental control. Children with a tendency to behave impulsively choose riskier routes through a pedestrian setting (Barton & Schwebel, 2006a). A more commonly cited risk factor for pedestrian injury is age (e.g., Assailly, 1997). Some research indicates children between the ages of 5 and 9 are at highest risk (Assailly, 1997; Durkin et al., 1999), while other evidence suggests pedestrian injuries peak between the ages of 10 and 11 years (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2005). Regardless, middle childhood has been consistendy identified as a time of elevated risk for pedestrian injury (Assailly, 1997; Canadian Institute of Child Health, 1998; Durkin et al., 1999; Malek, Guyer, & Lescohier, 1990; National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2005). During this developmental period, children begin to range farther from home, exploring pedestrian environments without adult supervision. In fact, many parents are comfortable allowing their children to cross neighbourhood streets independently by age 6 or 7 (Agran, Winn, & Anderson, 1994; Rivara, Bergman, & Drake, 1989; Wills et al., 1997). However, children's cognitive ability to handle the demands of safely crossing streets is not sufficiently developed during middle childhood. Although a seemingly straightforward and simple task, a street crossing is in fact rather complex. Children must identify safe places to initiate a street crossing. They must then adequately sample the direction and flow of cars so that important information is not missed. Finally, they must identify safe crossing gaps in traffic by attending to the speed and distance of vehicles and to visual occlusions such as parked cars or curves and inclines on the roadway. Such a complex task is usually difficult for children. As examples, young children tend to inefficiendy use the time available for crossing through a safe gap in traffic. Children tend to be overly conservative and often hesitate to begin crossing after selecting a gap in traffic (Demetre et al., 1992; Plumert, Kearney, & Cremer, 2004). As a result of hesitation in initiating a crossing, children waste part of a safe crossing gap and increase their risk for injury. Younger children also attend more to the presence of a vehicle in a pedestrian setting and ignore speed and distance (Connelly, Conaglen, Parsonson, & Isler, 1998). …