Abstract
Hepatitis B, caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), often progresses to chronic infection, leading to severe complications, such as cirrhosis, liver failure, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Chronic HBV infection is characterized by a complex interplay between the virus and the host immune system, resulting in immune cell exhaustion, a phenomenon commonly observed in chronic viral infections and cancer. This state of exhaustion involves elevated levels of inhibitory molecules, cells, and cell surface receptors, as opposed to stimulatory counterparts. This review aims to elucidate the expression patterns of various co-inhibitory and co-stimulatory receptors on immune cells isolated from chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients. By analyzing existing data, the review conducts comparisons between CHB patients and healthy adults, explores the differences between HBV-specific and total T cells in CHB patients, and examines variations between intrahepatic and peripheral immune cells in CHB patients. Understanding the mechanisms underlying immune exhaustion in CHB is crucial for developing novel immunotherapeutic approaches. This detailed analysis sheds light on the immune exhaustion observed in CHB and lays the groundwork for future combined immunotherapy strategies aimed at leveraging checkpoint receptors to restore immune function and improve clinical outcomes.
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