Abstract
BackgroundInsecticide resistance threatens effective vector control, especially for mosquitoes and malaria. To manage resistance, recommended insecticide use strategies include mixtures, sequences and rotations. New insecticides are being developed and there is an opportunity to develop use strategies that limit the evolution of further resistance in the short term. A 2013 review of modelling and empirical studies of resistance points to the advantages of mixtures. However, there is limited recent, accessible modelling work addressing the evolution of resistance under different operational strategies. There is an opportunity to improve the level of mechanistic understanding within the operational community of how insecticide resistance can be expected to evolve in response to different strategies. This paper provides a concise, accessible description of a flexible model of the evolution of insecticide resistance. The model is used to develop a mechanistic picture of the evolution of insecticide resistance and how it is likely to respond to potential insecticide use strategies. The aim is to reach an audience unlikely to read a more detailed modelling paper. The model itself, as described here, represents two independent genes coding for resistance to two insecticides. This allows the representation of the use of insecticides in isolation, sequence and mixtures.ResultsThe model is used to demonstrate the evolution of resistance under different scenarios and how this fits with intuitive reasoning about selection pressure. Using an insecticide in a mixture, relative to alone, always prompts slower evolution of resistance to that insecticide. However, when resistance to both insecticides is considered, resistance thresholds may be reached later for a sequence relative to a mixture. Increasing the ability of insecticides to kill susceptible mosquitoes (effectiveness), has the most influence on favouring a mixture over a sequence because one highly effective insecticide provides more protection to another in a mixture.ConclusionsThe model offers an accessible description of the process of insecticide resistance evolution and how it is likely to respond to insecticide use. A simple online user-interface allowing further exploration is also provided. These tools can contribute to an improved discussion about operational decisions in insecticide resistance management.
Highlights
Insecticide resistance threatens effective vector control, especially for mosquitoes and malaria
The model is implemented in R [20], the code is open-source and hosted on Github [21] including the code to generate both the figures and text of this paper relying on the packages knitr [22], shiny [23] and Results The results start with a description of model runs with a single insecticide which are more straightforward and move on to two insecticides in sequences and mixtures
Single insecticide For single insecticide use, higher values of insecticide effectiveness, exposure, resistance restoration and dominance of resistance all resulted in faster resistance spread (Fig. 4a–d) and fewer generations to reach a resistance threshold of 0.5
Summary
Insecticide resistance threatens effective vector control, especially for mosquitoes and malaria. New insecticides are being developed and there is an opportunity to develop use strategies that limit the evolution of further resistance in the short term. There is limited recent, accessible modelling work addressing the evolution of resistance under different operational strategies. The model is used to develop a mechanistic picture of the evolution of insecticide resistance and how it is likely to respond to potential insecticide use strategies. The model itself, as described here, represents two independent genes coding for resistance to two insecticides This allows the representation of the use of insecticides in isolation, sequence and mixtures. The WHO produced a Global Plan for Insecticide Resistance Management in malaria vectors (GPIRM) [1], which includes recommendations on operational strategies for managing resistance including the use of insecticide mixtures when they become available. It is important that decisions about how best to use the new insecticides, with a clear mindset of delaying the evolution of resistance, are made before insecticides are released [3]
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