Abstract
BackgroundAltered immune function during ageing results in increased production of nitric oxide (NO) and other inflammatory mediators. Recently, we have reported that NO production was inhibited by naturally-occurring proteasome inhibitors (quercetin, δ-tocotrienol, and riboflavin) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, and thioglycolate-elicited peritoneal macrophages from C57BL/6 mice. In a continuous effort to find more potent, non-toxic, commercially available, naturally-occurring proteasome inhibitors that suppress inflammation, the present study was carried out to describe the inhibition of NF-κB activation and NO, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and iNOS expression by trans-resveratrol, trans-pterostilbene, morin hydrate, and nicotinic acid in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells and thioglycolate-elicited peritoneal macrophages from C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice.ResultsThe present results indicate that resveratrol, pterostilbene, and morin hydrate caused significant inhibition (>70% to 90%; P < 0.02) in the activities of chymotrypsin-like, trypsin-like, and post-acidic (post-glutamase) proteasome sites in RAW 264.7 cells at a dose of only 20 μM. These compounds also inhibited the production of NO by RAW-264.7 cells stimulated with LPS alone (>40%; P < 0.05), or LPS + interferon-γ (IFN-γ; >60%; P < 0.02). Furthermore, resveratrol, pterostilbene, morin hydrate, and quercetin suppressed secretion of TNF-α (>40%; P < 0.05) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, and suppressed NF-κB activation (22% to 45%; P < 0.05) in LPS-stimulated HEK293T cells. These compounds also significantly suppressed LPS-induced expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and iNOS genes in RAW 264.7 cells, and also in thioglycolate-elicited peritoneal macrophages from C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice.ConclusionsThe present results clearly demonstrate that resveratrol and pterostilbene are particularly potent proteasome inhibitors that suppress expression of genes, and production of inflammatory products in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, and macrophages from C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice. Resveratrol and pterostilbene which are present in grapes, blueberries, and red wine, have been implicated as contributing factors to the lower incidence of cardiovascular disease in the French population, despite their relatively high dietary fat intake. Consequently, it appears likely that the beneficial nutritional effects of resveratrol and pterostilbene are due at least in part, to their ability to inhibit NF-κB activation by the proteasome, thereby suppressing activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and iNOS genes, resulting in decreased secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and NO levels, in response to inflammatory stimuli. This is the first report demonstrating that resveratrol and pterostilbene act as proteasome inhibitors, thus providing a mechanism for their anti-inflammatory effects.
Highlights
Altered immune function during ageing results in increased production of nitric oxide (NO) and other inflammatory mediators
Our research has focused primarily on macrophages because they are highly sensitive to LPS stimulation and respond by producing tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-8, NO, nuclear factorkappa B (NF-κB), and activator protein-1 (AP-1), which are largely responsible for many of the pathophysiological events associated with gramnegative sepsis and other inflammatory diseases [5,6,7]
Resveratrol, pterostilbene, morin hydrate, nicotinic acid, and quercetin inhibit production of NO by RAW 264.7 cells stimulated with LPS alone or LPS plus interferon-γ (IFN-γ) We recently reported that δ-tocotrienol, quercetin, riboflavin, and dexamethasone inhibited NO production by LPSstimulated RAW 264.7 cells and thioglycolate-elicited peritoneal macrophages derived from C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice [5]
Summary
Altered immune function during ageing results in increased production of nitric oxide (NO) and other inflammatory mediators. We have been interested in dysregulation of immune function associated with ageing, as manifested by enhanced nitric oxide (NO) production by macrophages from senescent mice [4], and the potential impact of reversing these age-associated alterations in immune regulation Toward this end, we reported that several naturallyoccurring proteasome inhibitors (e.g. quercetin, δtocotrienol, riboflavin) inhibit production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and murine macrophages in vitro, and that dietary supplementation with these compounds has comparable suppressive effects on the secretion of TNF-α and production of NO in vivo and ex vivo [5,6]. Resveratrol, pterostilbene and quercetin are active components in grapes, blueberries and red wine, contributing to the lower incidence of cardiovascular disease in the French population [8,9], and morin hydrate (isoflavonoid found in tea leaves) has been shown to be an effective hypocholesterolemic agent [12]
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