Inherited Human XY Sex Reversal and Gonadal Neoplasia Due to Enhanced Formation of Non-Specific Enhanceosomes by an Architectural Transcription Factor

Abstract

The development of organisms is regulated by a fine-tuned gene-regulatory network, which is driven by transcription factors (TFs). In the embryogenesis, these TFs control diverse cell fates and final body plan. This is precisely regulated by a specific DNA-binding process and enhanceosome formation. A model is provided by testis determination in mammals, which is initiated by a Y-encoded architectural transcription factor, SRY. Mutations in SRY cause gonadal dysgenesis leading to various developmental defects. Such mutations cluster in SRY’s high mobility group (HMG) box, a sequence-specific DNA-binding domain shared by a conserved family of TFs. Here, we have characterized several mutations at the same position in HMG box, which are compatible with either male or female phenotypes as observed in an XY father and XY daughter, respectively. These mutations, at a function-unknown motif in the SRY HMG box, markedly disturb the specific DNA affinity. On transient transfection of human and rodent cell lines, the SRY variants exhibit decreased specific DNA-binding activity (relative to wild type) are associated with mis-formed enhanceosomes. The variants’ gene regulatory activities were reduced by 2-fold relative to wild-type SRY at similar levels of mRNA expression. When engineered mutations that functions to increase the DNA-binding specificity were deployed to SRY variants, the transcriptional activity was in association with restored occupancy of sex-specific enhancer elements in principal downstream gene Sox9. Our findings define a novel mechanism of impaired organogenesis, disturbed specific DNA-binding activity of a master transcription factor, leading to a developmental decision poised at the edge of ambiguity.