Abstract
Human exposure to arsenic (As) is a global public health concern that frequently occurs through both dietary and non-dietary pathways. This is the first systematic field study that investigated the drinking water (n = 190) for concentrations of total As (AsT) and its inorganic species such as arsenate As(V) and arsenite As(III) and organic species including monomethylarsonic acid (MMA) and dimethylarsenic acid (DMA) collected from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The concentrations of AsT surpassed (from 1.2- to 23-fold) the world health organization (WHO) drinking water guidelines in 28% samples collected from Dera Ismail Khan (D.I. Khan) and Lakki Marwat. Results revealed that among As species, As(III) showed the highest concentration (116 µg L−1) in drinking water samples. In addition, the results revealed that the chronic or non-cancer risk (HQ > 1) and cancer risk (1.0E-03 to 1.0E-06) values were above their respective safe limits. Further, As species concentrations were determined in consumer biomarkers (n = 60) such as blood (red blood cells and plasma), hair, nails, and urine. The highest AsT (170 µg kg−1) accumulation was observed in hair samples collected from the resident of D.I. Khan District. The study revealed that high As-contaminated drinking water led to its accumulation in human body that could threaten the exposed population with hazardous chronic and cancer diseases.
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