“In-Ger” and “Outer” Diplomacy – Ilkhanid Contacts with the Mongols and the Outside World, 1260-1282

Abstract

Abstract By arrows and words, a Mongol Khanate was formed in the Middle East – the Il-Khanate, or Hülegü Ulus. Its continuous efforts of further conquests were accompanied by a bitter struggle against the Mongol sister khanate to the north-west – the Golden Horde, or Jochi Ulus. This article analyses the diplomatic activity of the early Il-Khans – Hülegü (1256-65) and Abaqa (1265-82), on two Jochid fronts: the Golden Horde, headed by Berke (1257-67) and his successors, and the Negüdäri forces, also named Qarāʾūnas, who roamed eastern Afghanistan. A further discussion is dedicated to the early Il-Khanid contacts with the western powers – the Mamluk Sultanate and Latin Europe, including an in depth study of Abaqa’s letter of Pope Clemens IV, written in 1268. This analysis outlines two patterns of diplomacy: one “outer”, aimed at the non-Mongol powers, and one “in-ger”, directed towards the Mongol adversaries. Tracking these patterns, the article’s conclusion attempts to define possible ethical “red lines” in the diplomacy of the early Il-Khans.