Abstract

Introduction The concept of chronic heart failure (CHF) has evolved over time from just a simple “pump-failure” to a more complex syndrome involving the activation of different compensatory mechanisms. Activation of the immune system, for example, can result in the production and release of proinflammatory cytokines, production of antibodies, and activation of the complement system. Several conditions contribute to the development of CHF. Initially, the heart is exposed to a primary insult such as myocardial infarction (MI), hypertension, viral infection or toxins (e.g., ethanol). The subsequent loss of myocardium, due to all compensatory mechanisms, creates a localized or generalized muscle dysfunction. Finally, the myocardium becomes more defective and weaker, producing symptoms typical of CHF. The immune activation is part of the pathophysiology of heart failure. It can be divided into two broad categories: 1) immune activation secondary to cardiac injury, and 2) immune activation by direct antigenic s...

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