Abstract
Background:Despite having one of the highest Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita levels, United States (US) ranks lower in subjective well-being, including happiness and life satisfaction, compared with European countries. Studies of the impact of happiness and life satisfaction on life expectancy and mortality in the US are limited or non-existent. Using a national longitudinal dataset, we examined the association between levels of happiness/life satisfaction and US life expectancy and all-cause mortality.Methods:We analyzed the 2001 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) prospectively linked to 2001-2014 mortality records in the National Death Index (NDI) (N=30,377). Cox proportional hazards regression was used to model survival time as a function of happiness, life satisfaction, and sociodemographic and behavioral covariates.Results:Life expectancies at age 18 among adults with high levels of happiness and life satisfaction were, respectively, 7.5 and 8.9 years higher compared to those with low levels of happiness and life satisfaction. In Cox models with 14 years of mortality follow-up, all-cause mortality risk was 82% higher (hazard ratio [HR]=1.82; 95% CI=1.59,2.08) in adults with little or no happiness, controlling for age, and 36% higher (HR=1.36; 95% CI=1.17,1.57) in adults with little/no happiness, controlling for sociodemographic, behavioral and health characteristics, when compared with adults reporting happiness all of the time. Mortality risk was 107% higher (HR=2.07; 95% CI=1.80,2.38) in adults who were very dissatisfied with their life, controlling for age, and 39% higher (HR=1.39; 95% CI=1.20,1.60) in adults who were very dissatisfied, controlling for all covariates, when compared with adults who were very satisfied.Conclusions and Global Health Implications:Adults with higher happiness and life satisfaction levels had significantly higher life expectancy and lower all-cause mortality risks than those with lower happiness and satisfaction levels. These findings underscore the significance of addressing subjective well-being in the population as a strategy for reducing all-cause mortality.
Highlights
According to the World Happiness Report, United States (US) ranked 18th in the level of happiness among 153 countries during 2015-2017.1 While its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita ranked 9th highest among 149 countries, the US has a lower average life satisfaction and a more unequal distribution of happiness than European countries which have a lower GDP per capita than the US.[1]
No prior studies, including those in the US, have analyzed variations in life expectancy by levels of happiness and life satisfaction, using longitudinal cohort data. To address this gap in research, we examine the association between happiness/life satisfaction and life expectancy and all-cause mortality in the US, using a nationally representative longitudinal dataset with 14-years of mortality follow-up data and baseline happiness and life satisfaction measures
About 5.9% of the sample responded that they were very dissatisfied or dissatisfied with their life in general.The mean age was 44.9 years.The study sample consisted of more females (52.1%), nonHispanic Whites (73.9%), US-born adults (86.4%), high school graduates (31.6%), currently married (58.5%), adults with incomes at or above 400% of the poverty threshold (31.9%), homeowners (70.5%), Southern residents (37.2%), adults without activity limitation (85.2%), adults with Body mass index (BMI) ≤ 25 (40.4%), non-smokers (54.6%), and current drinkers (62.8%)
Summary
According to the World Happiness Report, United States (US) ranked 18th in the level of happiness among 153 countries during 2015-2017.1 While its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita ranked 9th highest among 149 countries, the US has a lower average life satisfaction and a more unequal distribution of happiness than European countries which have a lower GDP per capita than the US.[1]. Two recent studies found no statistically significant association between happiness and all-cause mortality.[11,12]. Despite having one of the highest Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita levels, United States (US) ranks lower in subjective well-being, including happiness and life satisfaction, compared with European countries. Studies of the impact of happiness and life satisfaction on life expectancy and mortality in the US are limited or non-existent. Using a national longitudinal dataset, we examined the association between levels of happiness/life satisfaction and US life expectancy and all-cause mortality
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