Abstract
The household combustion of solid fuels, for the purpose of heating and cooking, is an activity practiced by many people in South Africa. Air pollution caused by the combustion of solid fuels in households has a significant influence on public health. People mostaffected are those considered to be the poorest, living in low-income settlements, where burning solid fuel is the primary source of energy. Insufficient data has been collected in South Africa to quantify the concentrations of particulate emissions that peopleare exposed to, especially the respirable fraction, associated with the combustion of solid fuels. The aim of this paper is to gain an understanding of the particulate matter (PM) concentrations a person living in a typical household in a low income settlement in theSouth African Highveld is exposed to. It also seeks to demonstrate that the use of solid fuels in the household can lead to indoor air pollution concentrations reaching levels very similar to ambient PM concentrations, which could be well in excess of the NationalAmbient Air Quality Standards, representing a major national public health threat. A mobile monitoring station was used in KwaDela, Mpumalanga to measure both ambient particulate concentrations and meteorological conditions, while a range of dust/particulate monitors were used for indoor and personal particulate concentration measurements. Indoor and personal measurements are limited to the respirable fraction (PM4) as this fraction contributes significantly to the negative health impacts. The sampling for this case study took place from 7-19 August 2014. Highest particulate matter concentrations were evident during the early mornings and the early evenings, when solid fuel burning activities were at their highest. Indoor and personal daily average PM4 concentrations did not exceed the 24h National Ambient PM2.5 Standard of 65 μg/m3 nor did they exceed the 24h National Ambient PM10 Standard of 75 μg/ m3. The outdoor PM2.5 concentrations were found to be below the standards for the duration of the sampling period. The outdoor PM10 concentrations exceeded the standards for one day during the sampling period. Results indicate that, although people in KwaDelamay be exposed to ambient PM concentrations that can be non-compliant to ambient standards, the exposure to indoor air, where solid fuel is burnt, may be detrimental to their health.
Highlights
The household combustion of solid fuels, for the purpose of heating and cooking, is an activity practiced by approximately 3 billion people around the world (Chafe et al 2014)
People most affected are those living in low- income settlements in developing countries, where burning solid fuels is the primary source of domestic energy (Xie et al 2015)
The variability of the particulate matter was highest for outdoor PM concentrations. 99th percentile values for outdoor PM2.5, outdoor PM10, indoor PM4 and personal PM4 concentrations were 81, 303, 126 and 30 μg/m3 respectively
Summary
The household combustion of solid fuels (coal, wood, dung, and crop waste), for the purpose of heating and cooking, is an activity practiced by approximately 3 billion people around the world (Chafe et al 2014). In South Africa, the low level burning of solid fuels such as coal and wood contributes significantly to the high levels of ambient air pollution in the country (Terblanche et al 1992).Many people in rural communities and in townships utilise solid fuels for cooking and heating. Various literature sources have acknowledged that ambient pollution levels are not necessarily indicative of the concentrations of air pollution that humans are exposed to on an everyday basis, as most people tend to spend most of their time indoors (Lim et al 2012, Diapouli et al 2011, Ferro et al 2004, Smith 2002). The Medical Research Council Burden of Disease Research Unit ranked indoor air pollution at number 15 for South Africa, higher than urban air pollution (MRC 2008, Norman et al 2007)
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