Abstract
Movement of individuals, or their genes, can influence eco-evolutionary processes in structured populations. We have limited understanding of the extent to which spatial behavior varies among groups and individuals within populations. Here, we use genetic pedigree reconstruction in a long-term study of European badgers (Meles meles) to characterize the extent of extra-group paternity, occurring as a consequence of breeding excursions, and to test hypothesized drivers of variation at multiple levels. We jointly estimate parentage and paternity distance (PD; distance between a cub’s natal and its father’s social group), and test whether population density and sex ratio influence mean annual PD. We also model cub-level PD and extra-group paternity (EGP) to test for variation among social groups and parental individuals. Mean PD varied among years but was not explained by population density or sex ratio. However, cub-level analysis shows strong effects of social group, and parental identities, with some parental individuals being consistently more likely to produce cubs with extra-group partners. Group effects were partially explained by local sex ratio. There was also a strong negative correlation between maternal and paternal social group effects on cub paternity distance, indicating source-sink dynamics. Our analyses of paternity distance and EGP indicate variation in extra-group mating at multiple levels—among years, social groups and individuals. The latter in particular is a phenomenon seldom documented and suggests that gene flow among groups may be disproportionately mediated by a nonrandom subset of adults, emphasizing the importance of the individual in driving eco-evolutionary dynamics.
Highlights
Movement of individuals and/or gametes inluences the dynamics, persistence, and genetic diversity of spatially structured populations (Ronce 2007)
While most badgers are irst caught as cubs or yearlings, 19% were irst captured as adults and likely represent a minimum estimate of immigration into the population
The analyses described above were conducted using all available PDi and EGPi observations based on the 80% conidence threshold for parentage assignment
Summary
Movement of individuals and/or gametes inluences the dynamics, persistence, and genetic diversity of spatially structured populations (Ronce 2007). Behaviors linked to “dispersal,” in the broadest sense of any movement with potential consequences for gene low (Ronce 2007), are widely viewed as adaptive, allowing individuals to escape from locally intense competition for resources or mates (Daniels and Walters 2000; Matthysen 2005), seek good or compatible genes in potential mating partners (Hamilton 1990; Zeh and Zeh 1996), or avoid inbreeding by leaving the vicinity of related individuals (Greenwood 1980) As such movements carry risks as well as beneits, associated behaviors are likely to have evolved under the inluence of multiple interacting factors that shape the balance of costs and beneits (Bowler and Benton 2005; Ronce 2007). Our understanding of what drives this variation within animal populations remains limited, social interactions and behavioral diferences (e.g., “personality” variation in exploratory tendency) likely play an important role (e.g., Cote et al 2010; Patrick et al 2012; Weiß et al 2016)
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