Incorporating and Delivering Biodiversity in a Countryside Agenda: The CCW Experience in Wales

Joanna M. Robertson (e-mail: j.robertson@ ccw.gov.uk), Biodiversity Action Coordinator, Countryside Council for Wales, Maes y Ffynnon, Penrhosgarnedd, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales LL57 2DW. This short communication draws on the experience in Wales of protecting biodiversity within a broad countryside agenda and discusses ways of meeting the challenges that the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) presents. It is intended to stimulate debate about how to ensure that the Convention really does its job. The British government signed the Con vention on 12 June 1992. The presence of non-governmental organisations characterised the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio, and they have played a large role in taking the biodiversity agenda forward in the United Kingdom since then. We now have a UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UKBAP) (Department of the Environment 1994), which has the endorsement and strong support of government. It contains broad objectives (for which responsibilities are assigned) is targeted and has built-in accountability. One novel aspect is the identification of priority habitats (45) and species (391) and the preparation of action plans for their conservation; a consistent approach to these plans is taken, establishing status, threats, what is being and needs to be done and by whom. The UKBAP also calls for the production of local biodiversity action plans, for improvement in information sharing and public involvement. This is a challenging agenda, but there are gaps between what the Convention requires and what UKBAP can achieve. A report to the British government in 2001 made it clear that a strategy was still needed to implement the full Convention (UK Bio diversity Group 2001). The preparation of dozens of habitat and species action plans and the holding of frequent meetings show that the biodiversity protection process, representing a new, inclusive way of working, is well underway. Against a background of continued wildlife losses, we also need to demonstrate that it is delivering positive gains for wildlife. Our experience in Wales has demonstrated the importance of linking bio diversity with the broader economiic and social issues of' sustainable development, of which it is a key measure. This helps to bring in people across the spe(trum-the link between people and nature needs to be re-established. We need to work very hard to interpret the UKBAP for everyday lives. This is beginning to be done, for example by selecting farmland birds as a measure of 'quality of life'. However, biodiversity in Wales is still a fairly penrpheral issue, with GDP, jobs and the farming industry higher up the political agenda. The voluntary sector is weak, and many local authorities are ecologically inexperienced. The National Assembly for Wales's Sustainable Development Scheme, Learning to live differently (National Assembly for Wales 2000), gives new hope. An important element of the picture in Wales is devolution. Wales now has its own Assembly, and it is logical that responsibility for biodiversity should be devolved. The Assembly has established a Wales Biodiversity Group. The Countryside Council for Wales (CCW), as the Assembly's countryside agency, has been expected to make most of the running to implement the UKBAP. The hope is that biodiversity and sustainable development will introduce a new way of thinking about nature and natural resources across all sectors. The opportunities are there. CCW is pressing forward with action to deliver some of the UKBAP objectives and targets. It is combining with other agencies to produce regular 'state of the environment' reports. CCW also helps to manage the first all-Wales, whole-farm agri-environment scheme, called Tir Gofal. A CCW director has been appointed to the National Biodiver sity Network Trust to tackle the data problem-everyone holds bits of information, but no one can access the full picture. CCW has taken over the Secretariat of the Wales Biodiversity Group. We are also supporting the preparation of local biodiversity action plans, which aim to translate national targets into reality at local level and to raise local awareness and resources for action. These plans offer the opportunity to

Influence of habitat quality, landscape structure and food resources on breeding skylark (Alauda arvensis) territory distribution on restored landfill sites

Hanson Quarry Products Europe and the statutory nature conservation body for England, English Nature (now Natural England), have a Partnership Agreement whereby Hanson in 2002 became the UK Habitats Champion for reed bed and fen recovery. Both reed bed and fen habitats are identified as a priority to halt their recent decline and to be enhanced and expanded in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP). The mineral extraction industry can significantly contribute to the 2010 national recovery targets. In 2003 English Nature commissioned, and subsequently published in 2007, 'Design & Reporting Criteria' to guide and facilitate the successful creation of reed bed, other swamp and fen vegetation as an after use of mineral extraction sites, and their subsequent reporting for inclusion in the national UK and local Habitat BAP inventories and audits. Reed bed is a specific type of open-water transition fen dominated by the common reed Phragmites australis and fen a generic term for this and other wetland types influenced by water that has been in contact with rock or soil. The term 'fen' embraces a very wide range of vegetation composition from low sedge and moss dominated to tall reed and tall-herb swamp types, and grading into the ‘wet’ end of meadows and woodland types. The scope for the creation of the various types of fen is dependent on a number of key physical factors (climate, hydrology, substrate (soils and geology) and fertility), but also in practice, land management and the availability of plant material. The physical factors were broadly considered for reed bed and 65 other published types of fen occurring in the UK from which the scope and opportunity for restoration in mineral workings, and generic design guidelines for their creation, are set out for use by planners and other practitioners alike. In concert, 'Reporting Criteria' were devised to enable the consistent and objective reporting of reed bed swamp and fen habitats created as a result of mineral site restoration. The reporting criteria are in line with the UK National Biodiversity Network definitions enabling incorporation of the data into UKBAP & Local BAP inventories. Additional

Evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of biodiversity conservation spending

Context Comprehensive evaluation of biodiversity conservation programs is essential for informing their development as well as the design of future programs. Such evaluations should not be limited to whether targets have been met, but should also assess the cost and efficiency of meeting targets, and any factors contributing to success or failure. Aims We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of individual-species conservation programs, and the biological and operational factors affecting these. We used the species action plans (SAPs) within the UK Biodiversity Action Plan as our case study. Methods We used cost–effectiveness analysis, cost–utility analysis and threat-reduction assessment to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of individual SAPs. Then we used statistical models to investigate the relative importance of biological and operational factors affecting cost, effectiveness and efficiency. Key results Conservation plan success was affected by both biological and operational factors. Invertebrate plans tended to be less effective, whereas vertebrate plans were less efficient. Plans for widely distributed species with longer generation times tended to be less efficient. Of the three different evaluation approaches, cost-effectiveness analysis offered the best combination of ease of data collection and accuracy of data content. Conclusions The most successful SAPs concerned species with short generation times and narrow distributions. Operationally, the most successful SAPs were concise and focussed and showed clear lines of responsibility for implementation. Implications Techniques such as cost–effectiveness analysis, cost-utility analysis and threat reduction assessment should be used to inform decisions on maximising the rate of return on conservation investments, although broader ecological implications and socio-cultural benefits should also be considered. The success of conservation plans is influenced by both biological and operational factors. Because biological factors cannot be controlled or altered, where species exhibit characteristics that are likely to make their conservation less effective or efficient, it is critical that operational factors are optimised. High-quality data are necessary to underpin prioritisation decisions, and monitoring to deliver reliable data on both the benefits and costs of conservation should form a core component of conservation programs.

The ecosystem approach—as endorsed by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB) in 2000—is a strategy for holistic, sustainable, and equitable natural resource management, to be implemented via the 12 Malawi Principles. These principles describe the need to manage nature in terms of dynamic ecosystems, while fully engaging with local peoples. It is an ambitious concept. Today, the term is common throughout the research and policy literature on environmental management. However, multiple meanings have been attached to the term, resulting in confusion. We reviewed references to the ecosystem approach from 1957 to 2012 and identified 3 primary uses: as an alternative to ecosystem management or ecosystem-based management; in reference to an integrated and equitable approach to resource management as per the CBD; and as a term signifying a focus on understanding and valuing ecosystem services. Although uses of this term and its variants may overlap in meaning, typically, they do not entirely reflect the ethos of the ecosystem approach as defined by the CBD. For example, there is presently an increasing emphasis on ecosystem services, but focusing on these alone does not promote decentralization of management or use of all forms of knowledge, both of which are integral to the CBD’s concept. We highlight that the Malawi Principles are at risk of being forgotten. To better understand these principles, more effort to implement them is required. Such efforts should be evaluated, ideally with comparative approaches, before allowing the CBD’s concept of holistic and socially engaged management to be abandoned or superseded. It is possible that attempts to implement all 12 principles together will face many challenges, but they may also offer a unique way to promote holistic and equitable governance of natural resources. Therefore, we believe that the CBD’s concept of the ecosystem approach demands more attention.La Necesidad de Desenredar Conceptos Clave del Argot Ambiente-EstrategiaResumenLa estrategia ambiental – como es promocionada por la Convención Biológica sobre Diversidad en 2000 – es una estrategia para un manejo holístico, sustentable y equitativo de recursos naturales, que habrá de implementarse por vía de los 12 Principios de Malawi. Estos principios describen la necesidad de manejar la naturaleza en términos de ecosistemas dinámicos, mientras se compromete totalmente con las personas locales. Es un concepto ambicioso. Hoy en día, el término es común en la investigación y la literatura de políticas sobre el manejo ambiente. Sin embargo, se han relacionado múltiples significados con el término, lo que resulta en confusión. Revisamos referencias a la estrategia ambiental de 1957 a 2012 e identificamos tres usos principales: como una alternativa para manejo ambiental o basado en ecosistemas; en referencia a una estrategia integrada y equitativa para el manejo de recursos según la CBD; y como un término que indica un enfoque en el entendimiento y la valuación de los servicios ambientales. Aunque los usos de este término y sus variantes pueden traslaparse en su significado, típicamente no reflejan en su totalidad los valores de la estrategia ambiental como fue definida por la CBD. Por ejemplo, actualmente hay un énfasis creciente en los servicios ambientales, pero enfocarse solamente en estos no promueve la descentralización del manejo o el uso de todas las formas de conocimiento, siendo ambas integrales para el concepto de la CBD. Resaltamos que los Principios de Malawi están en riesgo de ser olvidados. Para entender mejor estos principios, se requiere de más esfuerzo para implementarlos. Dichos esfuerzos deben ser evaluados, idóneamente con estrategias comparativas, antes de permitir que el concepto de la CBD de manejo holístico y comprometido socialmente sea abandonado o reemplazado. Es posible que los intentos por implementar los 12 principios juntos enfrentarán muchos obstáculos, pero también pueden ofrecer una forma única de promover el gobierno holístico y equitativo de los recursos naturales. Así, creemos que el concepto de estrategia ambiental de la CBD exige mayor atención.

As a result of the Earth Summit in 1992, 53 species of moth are covered by the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan. The background to the UK Biodiversity Action Plan and the selection of species is discussed. Butterfly Conservation's Action for Threatened Moths Project is covered along with its role and approach in overseeing the implementation of the moth Action Plans. A case study on the Straw Belle Aspitates gilvaria (Denis and Schiffermuller) is presented as an example of how an individual Action Plan is being implemented. A subjective consideration of the biological progress with the moth Action Plans is given along with a brief discussion of possible future developments for the UK BAP approach for moths.

Summary 1 Agri-environment schemes (AESs) are designed to create landscape-scale improvements in biodiversity. While the specific aims of AESs do not always include the enhancement of species of conservation concern, associated conservation strategies, such as the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, often rest on the assumption that AESs enhance environmental conditions and thereby improve the conservation status of target species. However, there is little evidence for the general efficacy of AESs in this respect. 2 To evaluate the effects of the Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) scheme, a widespread AES in Northern Ireland, a spotlight survey of the relative abundance of three mammal species, Irish hare Lepus timidus hibernicus, European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus and red fox Vulpes vulpes, was conducted. Of these, the Irish hare is a priority species for conservation action and the focus of a species action plan, while rabbit and fox are commonly considered agricultural pests. The effects of ESA designation and habitat on each species were assessed at 150 ESA and 50 non-ESA sites, matched for landscape characteristics. 3 The ESA scheme had no demonstrable effect on the abundance of Irish hares, and this agri-environment scheme did not target the landscape and habitat variables associated with hares. 4 In contrast, the abundance of rabbits and foxes was significantly greater within ESAs than the wider countryside. Agricultural factors such as reduced livestock stocking density, reduced overgrazing and field boundary enhancements may create more favourable conditions for both species. Aside from the implications for farm economics, the proliferation of rabbit populations within conservation areas may raise issues concerning the grazing of important plant communities, while increases in fox populations may adversely affect ground-nesting birds and other animal species of conservation concern. 5 Synthesis and applications. The abundance of rabbits and foxes corroborates recent work that suggests AESs may benefit common species but can not be relied upon to encourage rarer species. The Irish hare species action plan relies on agri-environment schemes to enhance the species’ status and realize the target of increasing the hare population by 2010 by promoting suitable habitat. However, the ESA scheme is unlikely to help in achieving these objectives. Targeted and evidence-based agri-environment prescriptions are clearly required in order to ensure the realization of species-specific conservation targets.

Biological diversity

Evaluating the cost-effectiveness of conservation: The UK Biodiversity Action Plan

A chapter on the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) fits perfectly in an edited volume dedicated to multilateral institutions. Indeed, the CBD is not an international organization, if one defines international organizations strictly as demonstrating autonomy and permanence. It rather follows the definition of an international regime, organized around a core framework convention. More precisely, the CBD was adopted during the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio, as the sister convention to the climate convention (see Chapter 13, this volume). While the CBD is not, strictly speaking, an international organization, it presents at least three features that are of particular interest and places the CBD in the category of noteworthy multilateral institutions. Firstly, while in theory just a treaty, the CBD has gained autonomy over time, with a small but active secretariat based in Montreal (and consequently distant from UNEP headquarters) described as a “lean shark” (Siebenhuner, 2009). Secondly, the CBD is one of the most dynamic global environmental treaties (with nearly universal membership, a notable exception being the United States), in contrast to the climate convention. Indeed, the CBD has deepened its work on biodiversity and regularly adopted new protocols, such as the Cartagena Protocol in 2000 or the Nagoya Protocol in 2010, one of the latest multilateral environmental agreements to have been adopted worldwide. Thirdly, the CBD demonstrates dynamism by also recently engaging in the estab-lishment of its own policy-science platform (following the model of the IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) that was created in April 2012 as the IPBES (Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services).

Will Rio+20 find a way to more sustainable development?

Common declines

Summary A principal goal of protected‐area networks is to maintain viable populations of as many species as possible, particularly those that are vulnerable to environmental change outside reserves. Ideally, one wants to be able to protect all biodiversity when selecting priority areas for conservation. Using the area‐prioritization algorithm ZONATION, we identified the locations where UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) species of mammals, birds, herptiles, butterflies and plants occur in concentrated populations with high connectivity. Both these features are likely to be correlated with population persistence. The analyses were successful in maintaining a high proportion of the connectivity of narrow‐range species, and large total amounts of the connectivity of wider‐range species over 10% of the land surface of Great Britain. Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP – high priority) species of one taxonomic group were not particularly good surrogates (indicators) for BAP species of other taxonomic groups. Hence, maintaining population concentrations of one taxonomic group did not guarantee doing likewise for other taxa. Species with narrow geographic ranges were most effective at predicting conservation success for other species, probably because they represent the range of environmental conditions required by other species. Synthesis and applications. This study identifies landscape‐scale priority areas for conservation of priority species from several taxonomic groups, using the Zonation software. ‘Indicator groups’ were only partially successful as predictors of priority areas for other taxonomic groups, and therefore, the identification of priority areas for biodiversity conservation should include information from all taxonomic groups available. Larger areas should be protected to account for species not included in the analyses. Conservation solutions based on data for many different species, and particularly those species with narrowly defined ranges, appear to be most effective at protecting other rare taxa.

Integrated spatial planning for biodiversity conservation and food production