INCLUSIVENESS OF OLD AND NEW FORMS OF CITIZENS' ELECTORAL PARTICIPATION

Abstract

Advocates of forms of ‘direct democracy’ usually argue that its introduction is a way to make politics more accessible to citizens. In the past decade different types of direct involvement of citizens have become more widespread in Europe, while the Internet is becoming a valuable tool to inform citizens and to facilitate the act of voting. Research into the question of whether these developments indeed enhance the inclusiveness of political systems for all citizens is, however, scarce. The author focuses on gender and examines whether referenda, internet voting and ‘smart voting’ are used by men and women in equal proportions. Comparative research needs to take into account, it is argued, the fact that the context does make a difference. Data on referendums are most readily available for Switzerland, but this polity was one of the last to grant full political rights to women. Though electoral politics in Switzerland shows a substantial gender gap, referendums are gender neutral. Data on Internet voting and ‘smart voting’ show mixed results; though these new techniques might offer possibilities for enhancing inclusiveness, it takes careful designing to make it work that way.