Abstract
This study used Landsat temporal series to describe defoliation levels due to the Pine Processionary Moth (PPM) in Pinus forests of southeastern Andalusia (Spain), utilizing Google Earth Engine. A combination of remotely sensed data and field survey data was used to detect the defoliation levels of different Pinus spp. and the main environmental drivers of the defoliation due to the PPM. Four vegetation indexes were also calculated for remote sensing defoliation assessment, both inside the stand and in a 60-m buffer area. In the area of study, all Pinus species are affected by defoliation due to the PPM, with a cyclic behavior that has been increasing in frequency in recent years. Defoliation levels were practically equal for all species, with a high increase in defoliation levels 2 and 3 since 2014. The Moisture Stress Index (MSI) and Normalized Difference Infrared Index (NDII) exhibited similar overall (p < 0.001) accuracy in the assessment of defoliation due to the PPM. The synchronization of NDII-defoliation data had a similar pattern for all together and individual Pinus species, showing the ability of this index to adjust the model parameters based on the characteristics of specific defoliation levels. Using Landsat-based NDII-defoliation maps and interpolated environmental data, we have shown that the PPM defoliation in southeastern Spain is driven by the minimum temperature in February and the precipitation in June, March, September, and October. Therefore, the NDII-defoliation assessment seems to be a general index that can be applied to forests in other areas. The trends of NDII-defoliation related to environmental variables showed the importance of summer drought stress in the expansion of the PPM on Mediterranean Pinus species. Our results confirm the potential of Landsat time-series data in the assessment of PPM defoliation and the spatiotemporal patterns of the PPM; hence, these data are a powerful tool that can be used to develop a fully operational system for the monitoring of insect damage.
Highlights
In Spain, 3.8 million hectares were reforested during the period 1945–1986, and 90% of the reforested area was planted with pines [1]
The objectives of this study were: (i) to use different vegetation indexes to assess defoliation related to Pine Processionary Moth (PPM) outbreaks, (ii) to assess the temporal changes in areas affected by the PPM in Pinus forests using a temporal sequence of Landsat images based on change thresholds for the period 1992–2016, (iii) to explore the potential of using this temporal sequence of Landsat data to determine the key environmental variables related to the defoliation process
This study used Landsat temporal series to describe the levels of defoliation due to the PPM in Pinus forests of southeastern Andalusia
Summary
In Spain, 3.8 million hectares were reforested during the period 1945–1986, and 90% of the reforested area was planted with pines [1]. In Mediterranean areas, the main objective of these plantations was watersheds protection Those forest stands have maintained constant interaction with biotic factors [2], disturbing growth and affecting the forest production and conservation over large areas. This relationship has been altered by direct and indirect factors, and various pest outbreaks have affected large forest areas [3,4]. These pests are responsible for 34% of the total damage suffered by forests in southeastern Europe [5]. Climate change is dramatically increasing the frequency of extreme events in forests, including insect outbreaks, as well as modifying tree physiology and defense mechanisms [13]
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