Implication of Gut Microbiota in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Abstract

It is now well established that gut flora and chronic liver diseases are closely interrelated. This association is most evident at late stages of the disease: cirrhosis and impaired liver function are associated with intestinal bacterial overgrowth, small bowel dysmotility, increased gut permeability, and decreased immunological defenses, all of which promote bacterial translocation from the gut to the systemic circulation, leading to infections that in turn aggravate liver dysfunction in a vicious circle [1]. For a long time, the implication of gut flora in the pathophysiology of less advanced chronic liver diseases has been underestimated because technical limitations allow only for the culture of a small fraction of gut bacteria. Recent technological progress and next-generation DNA sequencing have allowed for more sophisticated analysis and sampling of the gut microbiota by culture-independent methods [2]. Thanks to these recent technological advances, knowledge about the role of gut microbiota disruption (dysbiosis) in gut diseases such as colon cancer, inflammatory bowel diseases, and irritable bowel syndrome has greatly increased, with possible new therapeutic strategies. More surprisingly, gut dysbiosis has been implicated in chronic metabolic disorders such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases [3]. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the liver manifestation of the metabolic syndrome and thus evolves in the same context as these metabolic diseases [4]. It is therefore not surprising that recent literature emphasizes a potential role for gut dysbiosis in the pathophysiology of NAFLD. NAFLD encompasses a spectrum of hepatic pathology (i.e., liver phenotypes). Accumulation of triglycerides in hepatocytes (hepatic steatosis) is the most common liver phenotype in NAFLD. Some individuals with hepatic steatosis develop nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a more severe type of liver damage characterized by hepatic inflammation and liver cell death. In some individuals with the NASH phenotype, liver regeneration cannot keep pace with the increased rate of hepatocyte death, and liver scarring (fibrosis) ensues. Over time, some of these individuals accumulate sufficient fibrosis to develop cirrhosis. Because cirrhosis dramatically increases the risk for both primary liver cancer and overall liver-related mortality, liver cirrhosis is the NAFLD phenotype that has the worst prognosis. Epidemiologic studies indicate that NAFLD is now the most common cause of liver disease in many countries, including the United States [5]. It is estimated that at least 25% of American adults have some form of NAFLD, with about 6% of the general adult population having NASH and 2%–3% having NAFLD-related cirrhosis.