Abstract
Cnidaria include the most venomous animals of the world. Among Cnidaria, Scyphozoa (true jellyfish) are ubiquitous, abundant, and often come into accidental contact with humans and, therefore, represent a threat for public health and safety. The venom of Scyphozoa is a complex mixture of bioactive substances—including thermolabile enzymes such as phospholipases, metalloproteinases, and, possibly, pore-forming proteins—and is only partially characterized. Scyphozoan stings may lead to local and systemic reactions via toxic and immunological mechanisms; some of these reactions may represent a medical emergency. However, the adoption of safe and efficacious first aid measures for jellyfish stings is hampered by the diffusion of folk remedies, anecdotal reports, and lack of consensus in the scientific literature. Species-specific differences may hinder the identification of treatments that work for all stings. However, rinsing the sting site with vinegar (5% acetic acid) and the application of heat (hot pack/immersion in hot water) or lidocaine appear to be substantiated by evidence. Controlled clinical trials or reliable models of envenomation are warranted to confirm the efficacy and safety of these approaches and identify possible species-specific exceptions. Knowledge of the precise composition of Scyphozoa venom may open the way to molecule-oriented therapies in the future.
Highlights
Cnidarians (Hatschek, 1888) are one of the oldest phyla and have existed since at least the Cambrian [1]
These findings indicate that matrix metalloproteases and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and possibly other PLs can be regarded as novel therapeutic targets in scyphozoan envenomation
We envision that first aid protocols for scyphozoan stings should:
Summary
Cnidarians (Hatschek, 1888) are one of the oldest phyla and have existed since at least the Cambrian [1]. Following mechanical–chemical stimulation, the tubule is quickly everted, injecting into the teguments of the prey or predator the venomous substances This event is called discharge and is known as one of the fastest processes in the animal kingdom [8,11,12]. Phase contrast microphotographs of (a) undischarged and (b) discharged holotrichous-isorhiza nematocysts isolated from Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) oral arms. Being present in both coastal and open waters at different depths, cnidarians often come into accidental contact with humans, interfering with human activities and having a considerable impact on public safety, health, and economy. The aim of the present work is to give an overview of the first aid measures for scyphozoan stings based on scientific information, with special emphasis on the mechanistic activity of specific venom components
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