Abstract
Glyphosate is the most used pesticide around the world. Although different studies have evidenced its negative effect on honey bees, including detrimental impacts on behavior, cognitive, sensory and developmental abilities, its use continues to grow. Recent studies have shown that it also alters the composition of the honey bee gut microbiota. In this study we explored the impact of chronic exposure to sublethal doses of glyphosate on the honey bee gut microbiota and its effects on the immune response, infection by Nosema ceranae and Deformed wing virus (DWV) and honey bee survival. Glyphosate combined with N. ceranae infection altered the structure and composition of the honey bee gut microbiota, for example by decreasing the relative abundance of the core members Snodgrassella alvi and Lactobacillus apis. Glyphosate increased the expression of some immune genes, possibly representing a physiological response to mitigate its negative effects. However, this response was not sufficient to maintain honey bee health, as glyphosate promoted the replication of DWV and decreased the expression of vitellogenin, which were accompanied by a reduced life span. Infection by N. ceranae also alters honey bee immunity although no synergistic effect with glyphosate was observed. These results corroborate previous findings suggesting deleterious effects of widespread use of glyphosate on honey bee health, and they contribute to elucidate the physiological mechanisms underlying a global decline of pollination services.
Highlights
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) play an essential role in the environment, being important pollinators that contribute to agricultural production and the maintenance of natural ecosystems [1,2]
In order to deepen in our understanding of the effects of pesticide exposure on bee health, we aimed to elucidate the impact of chronic exposure to sublethal doses of glyphosate on the honey bee gut microbiota, immune response, and survival, and its potential interaction with the widespread pathogens N. ceranae and Deformed wing virus (DWV)
The impact of glyphosate alone or in combination with N. ceranae on the structure and composition of honey bee gut microbiota was evaluated by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing
Summary
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) play an essential role in the environment, being important pollinators that contribute to agricultural production and the maintenance of natural ecosystems [1,2]. Honey bees produce honey, wax and propolis, among other products, which have been used for food, medicine and industrial purposes for centuries [2]. Mainly the expansion of agricultural crops and the massive use of pesticides, together with the infections by multiple pests and pathogens, are among the most important causes of such losses [7,8]. While honey bees are not target organisms for most pesticides, they are Microorganisms 2021, 9, 845. Pesticides are able to reach the hive and are commonly detected in honey and wax [11,12]
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