Abstract
Large-scale declines in bee abundance and species richness over the last decade have sounded an alarm, given the crucial pollination services that bees provide. Population dips have specifically been noted for both managed and feral bee species. The simultaneous increased cultivation of bee-dependent agricultural crops has given rise to additional concern. As a result, there has been a surge in scientific research investigating the potential stressors impacting bees. A group of environmental and anthropogenic stressors negatively impacting bees has been isolated. Habitat destruction has diminished the availability of bee floral resources and nest habitats, while massive monoculture plantings have limited bee access to a variety of pollens and nectars. The rapid spread and increased resistance buildup of various bee parasites, pathogens, and pests to current control methods are implicated in deteriorating bee health. Similarly, many pesticides that are widely applied on agricultural crops and within beehives are toxic to bees. The global distribution of honey bee colonies (including queens with attendant bees) and bumble bee colonies from crop to crop for pollination events has been linked with increased pathogen stress and increased competition with native bee species for limited resources. Climatic alterations have disrupted synchronous bee emergence with flower blooming and reduced the availability of diverse floral resources, leading to bee physiological adaptations. Interactions amongst multiple stressors have created colossal maladies hitting bees at one time, and in some cases delivering additive impacts. Initiatives including the development of wild flower plantings and assessment of pesticide toxicity to bees have been undertaken in efforts to ameliorate current bee declines. In this review, recent findings regarding the impact of these stressors on bees and strategies for mitigating them are discussed.
Highlights
Bees provide integral pollination services enabling the fruiting and reproduction of both agricultural food and fiber crops [1] and wild plant species [2]
It is presumed that complications in assessing the intricate roles of wild bees and the flowers that they pollinate in specific microclimates on a global scale has in part contributed to the shortage of data on their health and population status [54]; an excessive focus on the demise of managed honey bees may in part have clouded and dismissed these efforts
This study found that survival was significantly reduced following intake of commercial bumble bee feces, and large quantities of honey bees became infected with N. apis, N. ceranae, and A. bombi following exposure to either bumble bee feces or pollen
Summary
Bees provide integral pollination services enabling the fruiting and reproduction of both agricultural food and fiber crops [1] and wild plant species [2]. Bee scientists ranging from academia to government to industry, and organizations and environmental initiatives alike have recently recognized that pollinator conservation efforts must encompass the diversity of bee species, and that in some cases, the presence of honey bees in ecosystems may even negatively impact non-Apis bees [54,91] In this context, it is presumed that complications in assessing the intricate roles of wild bees and the flowers that they pollinate in specific microclimates on a global scale has in part contributed to the shortage of data on their health and population status [54]; an excessive focus on the demise of managed honey bees may in part have clouded and dismissed these efforts. Our approach identifies and analyzes the recent literature on a group of biotic and abiotic stressors impacting the health, fecundity, distribution, abundance, and diversity of bees across different systems and world regions In this context, we explore stress brought upon bees from common sources such as habitat manipulation, diseases, and pesticides, as well uncommon sources such as anthropogenic effects and climate change. Our goal is to contribute toward a transformational time in the science of bee health that fully encompasses the entire spectrum of species, the complexity of their interactions with their respective environments, and the potential multitude and impact of the stressors imposed upon them
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