Abstract
A numerical study on a rigid projectile (sphere) ricocheting off a water layer is presented in this paper. The time-dependent three-dimensional simulations are carried out for the impact of a solid metal sphere (with radius r ) on a quiescent air-water interface. Three types of metal spheres with specific gravity values ranging from 7.8 to 2.7 (steel, titanium and duralumin) were considered. The numerical results are compared with analytical solutions and experimental data of the ricochet problem available in the literature. A given range of projectile impact velocity are considered with varying impact angles to determine the critical angle of impact as a function of the Froude number and specific gravity. A correlation in the form of is proposed for the ricochet of a solid sphere from an air-water interface.
Highlights
The phenomenon of ricochet of a projectile off the free surface of water was well known from at least the time of the Battle of Trafalgar, 1805 (1) when the range of ship-mounted cannons was increased by aiming the cannon sphere so that it would ricochet off the sea surface
In contrast to the experimental results (3D), these results demonstrated that both the SPH and Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) models showed an over prediction of ricochet at higher impact velocities, but the SPH and ALE models agree in their over predictions
The (FFrr = VVii2/rrrr) of each simulation is calculated and the range of Fr for each set of simulation is increased by varying the impact velocity Vi or the acceleration due to gravity g or both
Summary
The phenomenon of ricochet of a projectile off the free surface of water was well known from at least the time of the Battle of Trafalgar, 1805 (1) when the range of ship-mounted cannons was increased by aiming the cannon sphere so that it would ricochet off the sea surface. The likelihood of ricochet is dependent on many factors, including the projectile shape and size, the projectile material, spin, velocity (and distance), target material and the angle of incidence (2). Bullets are more likely to ricochet off flat, hard surfaces such as concrete or steel, but a ricochet can occur on almost any surface, including grassy soil, given a flat enough angle of impact of the projectile. Though it may not be intuitive, bullets/projectiles ricochet off water (3): compare the stone skipping phenomenon observed in ponds and lakes
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