Abstract
The vegetable watercress (Nasturtium officinale R.Br.) is, besides being a generally nutritious food, a rich source of glucosinolates. Gluconasturtiin, the predominant glucosinolate in watercress, has been shown to have several health beneficial properties through its bioactive breakdown product phenethyl isothiocyanate. Little is known about the immunoregulatory effects of watercress. Moreover, anti-inflammatory effects have mostly been shown in in vitro or in animal models. Hence, we conducted a proof-of-concept study to investigate the effects of watercress on the human immune system. In a cross-over intervention study, 19 healthy subjects (26.5 ± 4.3 years; 14 males, 5 females) were given a single dose (85 g) of fresh self-grown watercress or a control meal. Two hours later, a 30 min high-intensity workout was conducted to promote exercise-induced inflammation. Blood samples were drawn before, 5 min after, and 3 h after the exercise unit. Inflammatory blood markers (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, MCP-1, MMP-9) were analyzed in whole blood cultures after ex vivo immune cell stimulation via lipopolysaccharides. A mild pro-inflammatory reaction was observed after watercress consumption indicated by an increase in IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, whereas the immune response was more pronounced for both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory markers (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α) after the exercise unit compared to the control meal. During the recovery phase, watercress consumption led to a stronger anti-inflammatory downregulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α. In conclusion, we propose that watercress causes a stronger pro-inflammatory response and anti-inflammatory counter-regulation during and after exercise. The clinical relevance of these changes should be verified in future studies.
Highlights
With the revival of domestic greens watercress (Nasturtium officinale R.Br.), a member of the Brassicaceae family, gains a growing interest in science
There has yet been no confirmation that watercress and its ingredients gluconasturtiin/phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) act in a similar way in humans compared to effects observed in vitro, namely, by inhibiting the pro-inflammatory nuclear factor kappa B (NfκB) pathway [7]
The pro-oxidative state would be further enhanced by the exercise, which subsequently results in an even more pronounced pro-inflammatory response in the watercress group and a stronger induction of the counter-regulatory nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated antioxidant response that is observed in the recovery phase
Summary
With the revival of domestic greens watercress (Nasturtium officinale R.Br.), a member of the Brassicaceae family, gains a growing interest in science. Like all members of the Brassicaceae family, watercress contains mustard oil glycosides or glucosinolates (GLS), of which gluconasturtiin is the predominant GLS in watercress As a precursor, it is converted into the bioactive compound phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) upon tissue disruption due to the action of the thioglucosidase myrosinase. Several studies investigated the health beneficial effects of watercress and PEITC including antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-allergic, antibacterial, hypolipemic, cardioprotective, and anticancer effects (reviewed in [2]). While most of these effects have been observed in vitro or in animal studies, only a few human intervention studies with watercress have been carried out. Inflammatory blood markers (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, MCP-1, MMP-9) were analyzed in whole blood cultures after ex vivo immune cell stimulation via lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
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