Abstract
Virus infected host cells serve as a central immune ecological niche during viral infection and replication and stimulate the host immune response via molecular signaling. The viral infection and multiplication process involves complex intracellular molecular interactions between viral components and the host factors. Various types of host cells are also involved to modulate immune factors in delicate and dynamic equilibrium to maintain a balanced immune ecosystem in an infected host tissue. Antiviral host arsenals are equipped to combat or eliminate viral invasion. However, viruses have evolved with strategies to counter against antiviral immunity or hijack cellular machinery to survive inside host tissue for their multiplication. However, host immune systems have also evolved to neutralize the infection; which, in turn, either clears the virus from the infected host or causes immune-mediated host tissue injury. A complex relationship between viral pathogenesis and host antiviral defense could define the immune ecosystem of virus-infected host tissues. Understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying this ecosystem would uncover strategies to modulate host immune function for antiviral therapeutics. This review presents past and present updates of immune-ecological components of virus infected host tissue and explains how viruses subvert the host immune surveillances.
Highlights
The immune ecosystem of a virus-infected host can be defined as the systemic interaction between the virus and the host immune system, resulting in either viral clearance or immune-mediated host tissue injury [1,2]
Immune system evolution occurs in all hosts from unicellular to vertebrates, for example, viral infection in protozoa leads to viral replication without apoptosis, while in multicellular organisms, apoptosis occurs during viral infection and vertebrate’s response is more complex leading to long term immunity against the invading virus [4,5,6]
To guarantee successful and durable defense mechanisms against virus infection, hosts have evolved a highly intricate, sophisticated, and adaptable immune system to protect against continuously emerging threats and mutated viruses
Summary
The immune ecosystem of a virus-infected host can be defined as the systemic interaction between the virus and the host immune system, resulting in either viral clearance or immune-mediated host tissue injury [1,2]. Immune sensing through innate signaling of virus-infected cells eventually induces the translation of interferon (IFN), these secreted IFNs bind with their cognate receptors present on the cell membrane. This binding activates a signaling pathway leading to expression of various IFN-dependent antiviral molecules [14]. In spite of the existence of several correlative host defense lines to neutralize invasive pathogens or restrict the viral life cycle, viruses have evolved and adapted diverse counter strategies to evade the host immunity, sustaining continuous replication and endurable infection in the host using avoidance and escape tactics. We highlight the virus subversion mechanisms against host immune responses
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