Abstract
This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Arcobacter and five associated virulence genes (cadF, ciaB, mviN, pldA, and tlyA) in water samples in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. A total of 286 samples were collected from deep tube wells (n = 30), rivers (n = 14), a pond (n = 1), shallow dug wells (n = 166), shallow tube wells (n = 33), springs (n = 21), and stone spouts (n = 21) in February and March (dry season) and August (wet season), 2016. Bacterial DNA was extracted from the water samples and subjected to SYBR Green-based quantitative PCR for 16S rRNA and virulence genes of Arcobacter. The 16S rRNA gene of Arcobacter was detected in 36% (40/112) of samples collected in the dry season, at concentrations ranging from 5.7 to 10.2 log copies/100 mL, and 34% (59/174) of samples collected in the wet season, at concentrations of 5.4–10.8 log copies/100 mL. No significant difference in Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene-positive results was observed between samples collected in the two seasons (p > 0.05). Seventeen (17%), 84 (84%), 19 (19%), 23 (23%), and 17 (17%) of the 99 Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene-positive samples were also positive for cadF, ciaB, mviN, pldA, and tlyA, respectively. At least one virulence gene was detected in 87 (88%) of the 99 Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene-positive samples. The presence of Arcobacter and the virulence genes in these samples illustrates the persistence of pathogenic bacteria in the environment and highlights the importance of regular monitoring of water for pathogens.
Highlights
Fecal contamination of water sources has been a problem in developing countries and is a major factor in the spread of waterborne diseases
Among 174 water samples collected in the wet season of 2016, 16S rRNA gene of Arcobacter was detected in 12% (3/25), 92% (12/13), 43% (37/87), 9% (2/22), 23% (3/13), and 14% (2/14) of deep tube well, river, shallow dug well, shallow tube well, spring, and stone spout water samples, respectively
The highest concentration of 16S rRNA gene of Arcobacter was detected in the river water (9.3 ± 1.3 log copies/100 mL), followed by deep tube wells (7.1 ± 0.5 log copies/100 mL) and stone spouts (6.4 ± 0.4 log copies/100 mL)
Summary
Fecal contamination of water sources has been a problem in developing countries and is a major factor in the spread of waterborne diseases. Republic [13], Japan [14], South Africa [15], Spain [16,17], Turkey [18,19,20], and USA [21]. This global prevalence of Arcobacter has had a major impact on groundwater and surface water in the Kathmandu.
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