Abstract
Abstract. Hydrologic knowledge in India has a historical footprint extending over several millenniums through the Harappan civilization (∼3000–1500 BCE) and the Vedic Period (∼1500–500 BCE). As in other ancient civilizations across the world, the need to manage water propelled the growth of hydrologic science in ancient India. Most of the ancient hydrologic knowledge, however, has remained hidden and unfamiliar to the world at large until the recent times. In this paper, we provide some fascinating glimpses into the hydrological, hydraulic, and related engineering knowledge that existed in ancient India, as discussed in contemporary literature and revealed by the recent explorations and findings. The Vedas, particularly, the Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda, have many references to the water cycle and associated processes, including water quality, hydraulic machines, hydro-structures, and nature-based solutions (NBS) for water management. The Harappan civilization epitomizes the level of development of water sciences in ancient India that includes construction of sophisticated hydraulic structures, wastewater disposal systems based on centralized and decentralized concepts, and methods for wastewater treatment. The Mauryan Empire (∼322–185 BCE) is credited as the first “hydraulic civilization” and is characterized by the construction of dams with spillways, reservoirs, and channels equipped with spillways (Pynes and Ahars); they also had an understanding of water balance, development of water pricing systems, measurement of rainfall, and knowledge of the various hydrological processes. As we investigate deeper into the references to hydrologic works in ancient Indian literature including the mythology, many fascinating dimensions of the Indian scientific contributions emerge. This review presents the various facets of water management, exploring disciplines such as history, archeology, hydrology and hydraulic engineering, and culture and covering the geographical area of the entire Indian subcontinent to the east of the Indus River. The review covers the period from the Mature Harappan Phase to the Vedic Period and the Mauryan Empire.
Highlights
Water is intimately linked to human existence and is the source of societal and cultural development, traditions, rituals, and religious beliefs
The review covers the geographical area of the entire Indian subcontinent to the east of the Indus River. It includes the parts of the Harappan civilization and the whole of India with historical boundaries from the Mature Harappan Phase to the Mauryan Empire. These boundaries encompass the major centers or regions of development in ancient India, and the Mauryan Empire is considered the terminal point of ancient India, which is consistent with the views of Olson (2009) that the Mauryan Empire can be considered the historical boundary of ancient India
If we closely look at the scale of the hydro-technologies in all the civilizations, the Harappan civilization is credited with the more advanced and larger-scale application of hydro-technologies and worked as a “archetype” for contemporary civilizations to achieve the great heights in human civilizations, on the whole
Summary
Water is intimately linked to human existence and is the source of societal and cultural development, traditions, rituals, and religious beliefs. The Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya “who reportedly was the chief minister to the emperor Chandragupta (300 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan dynasty” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Artha-shastra, last access: 27 April 2020), deals with several issues of governance, including water governance It mentions a manually operated cooling device referred to as “Variyantra” (revolving water spray for cooling the air). McClellan III and Dorn (2015) noted that “the Mauryan Empire was first and foremost a great hydraulic civilization” This suggests that the technology of the construction of the dams, reservoirs, channels, measurement of rainfall, and knowledge of the various hydrological processes existed in the ancient Indian society. It includes the parts of the Harappan civilization (in present-day Pakistan) and the whole of India with historical boundaries from the Mature Harappan Phase to the Mauryan Empire. These boundaries encompass the major centers or regions of development in ancient India, and the Mauryan Empire is considered the terminal point of ancient India, which is consistent with the views of Olson (2009) that the Mauryan Empire can be considered the historical boundary of ancient India
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