Abstract
Tissue engineering has been an inveterate area in the field of regenerative medicine for several decades. However, there remains limitations to engineer and regenerate tissues. Targeted therapies using cell-encapsulated hydrogels, such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), are capable of reducing inflammation and increasing the regenerative potential in several tissues. In addition, the use of MSC-derived nano-scale secretions (i.e., exosomes) has been promising. Exosomes originate from the multivesicular division of cells and have high therapeutic potential, yet neither self-replicate nor cause auto-immune reactions to the host. To maintain their biological activity and allow a controlled release, these paracrine factors can be encapsulated in biomaterials. Among the different types of biomaterials in which exosome infusion is exploited, hydrogels have proven to be the most user-friendly, economical, and accessible material. In this paper, we highlight the importance of MSCs and MSC-derived exosomes in tissue engineering and the different biomaterial strategies used in fabricating exosome-based biomaterials, to facilitate hard and soft tissue engineering.
Highlights
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The developments in cell-encapsulated hydrogel therapies have been improved by the heightened ease of using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) with them [4]
MSCs have shown enhanced differentiation capacity when cultured in proximity to other cells, such as hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) [4]
Summary
The benefits of exosomes are well-known, the drawbacks of delivering a therapeutic dosage of exosomes, especially through systemic injections, may outweigh their advantages [14]. The difficulties in exosome purification and mass-scale production emanate from the expensive manufacturing protocols that require consistency and purity of nanometer-sized biomaterials [14]. Delivering exosomes entails a more efficient method to elude from being cleared by the host body. 2021, 22, 684 consistency and purity of nanometer-sized biomaterials [14]. Delivering3eoxf o15somes entails a more efficient method to elude from being cleared by the host body. Dthueestiozethdeisstirziebduisttiroinbu(5ti0o–n1(2500–n1m2)0 annmd)tahneddtehleicdaetelicmateemmberamnboruasnonuatsunraetuofrethoef tehxeoseoxmoseosm, cehs,acrhaactrearcitzeirnizgtihnegmthbemefobreefothreeitrheinirvionlvoelmvemnteinnt ibniobmioamteartiearlisalis icsrcitriictaiclatlotoopoptitmimiziezeththeeddeessirireeddeeffffeecctt in tthhee ttaarget tissue [15]. TThheessee cchhaarraacctteerizations consist of assays to evaluate the interactions ooff the exosommeess withh the surroundiinngg tisssuuee,, suurrffaaccee mmaarrkkeerrss,, tthheeiirr pprrootteeoommiiccss pprrooffiillee,, tthheeiir mmorphology, and size [15]. Methods to load the exosomes with therapeutics include As showpnasisnivFeig[9u]reor4,acmtievtehomdesthtoodlosa.
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