Abstract
This study focuses on quantifying hydrodynamic trails produced by freely swimming zooplankton. We combined volumetric tracking of swimming trajectories with planar observations of the flow field induced by Daphnia of different size and swimming in different patterns. Spatial extension of the planar flow field along the trajectories was used to interrogate the dimensions (length and volume) and energetics (dissipation rate of kinetic energy and total dissipated power) of the trails. Our findings demonstrate that neither swimming pattern nor size of the organisms affect the trail width or the dissipation rate. However, we found that the trail volume increases with increasing organism size and swimming velocity, more precisely the trail volume is proportional to the third power of Reynolds number. This increase furthermore results in significantly enhanced total dissipated power at higher Reynolds number. The biggest trail volume observed corresponds to about 500 times the body volume of the largest daphnids. Trail-averaged viscous dissipation rate of the swimming daphnids vary in the range of to and the observed magnitudes of total dissipated power between and , respectively. Among other zooplankton species, daphnids display the highest total dissipated power in their trails. These findings are discussed in the context of fluid mixing and transport by organisms swimming at intermediate Reynolds numbers.
Highlights
Small-scale fluid motion and mixing induced by swimming zooplankton in aquatic ecosystems have important physiological and ecological consequences at organism and population scale
Theoretical analysis [12] and numerical simulations [13] on copepods suggest that the highly fluctuating flow field around their beating feeding appendages and swimming legs is damped by viscosity and high-frequency temporal fluctuations are restricted to sppffiaffitial scales, which are smaller than the viscous length scale n=v
Reynolds number (Re) can be considered as a relative trail length because it scales with the ratio of length scale over which hydrodynamic disturbances dissipate to organism size [14]
Summary
Small-scale fluid motion and mixing induced by swimming zooplankton in aquatic ecosystems have important physiological and ecological consequences at organism and population scale. Theoretical analysis [12] and numerical simulations [13] on copepods suggest that the highly fluctuating flow field around their beating feeding appendages and swimming legs is damped by viscosity and high-frequency temporal fluctuations are restricted to sppffiaffitial scales, which are smaller than the viscous length scale n=v (with v and n being the angular frequency of the beating appendages and the kinematic viscosity respectively). Beyond this length scale, a steady flow field develops, which depends on organism Reynolds number (Re). Because the molecular diffusivities of dissolved substances are much smaller than the diffusivity of momentum, which is described by the kinematic viscosity, the corresponding concentration fluctuations are more persistent and are dissipated at much larger spatial scales [15]
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