Abstract
Groundwater under Basement Complex areas of southern Kebbi has been characterized in order to determine its suitability for drinking and irrigation use. Water samples were drawn from shallow groundwater (hand-dug shallow wells < 5 m) and deep groundwater (boreholes > 40 m). Physical parameters (i.e., temperature, TDS, pH, and EC), were determined in situ, using handheld meters. Discrete water samples were obtained for determination of chemical parameters. Results from several-sample ANOVA (Kruskal–Wallis test) suggested that heterogeneity in water table appeared to exert significant influence on groundwater chemistry which is characterized by a significant difference in pH, EC TH, Na+, Zn2+, Mg2+, PO43−, Cl−, HCO3−, SO42−, and NO3− concentrations. Also, ions including Fe3+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Na+, PO43−, and SO42− are above World Health Organization (2011) and National Standard for Drinking Water Quality (2007) reference guidelines. Most of the groundwater sources are moderately hard. Groundwater classification based on chloride, EC, and TDS revealed water of excellent quality for all types of uses. However, groundwater classification based on nitrate pollution revealed water of poor quality. Rock mineral is the major mechanism controlling water chemistry, as revealed by the Gibbs model. Most of the water sources have positive Scholler index, indicative of overall base exchange reactions in the underlying aquifers. Such condition was well explained by Piper trilinear diagram, which revealed two types of faces: Ca–Mg–HCO3 and Ca–Mg–SO4–Cl. The HCA categorized wells into three groups according to their hydrogeochemical physiognomies. Despite the significant difference in ions concentration and chemical indices, groundwater composition is more influenced by rock weathering than anthropogenic inputs. Groundwater evaluation for irrigation use indicates a significant difference in SAR level which is related to poor permeability index in shallow groundwater. Higher values of Kelly’s index and magnesium adsorption ratio threatened groundwater suitability for irrigation use in the study area.
Highlights
Groundwater is one of the most important environmental reserves exploited for industrial, agricultural, and domestic uses (Wagh et al 2016)
The concentrations of Fe3+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Na+, PO43−, and SO42− are above World Health Organization (2011) and National Standard for Drinking Water Quality (2007) reference guidelines
There is a significant difference in concentrations of temperature, pH, EC, hardness, Na+, Zn2+, Mg2+, PO43−, Cl−, HCO3−, SO42−, and NO3− between shallow and deep groundwater sources; 3
Summary
Groundwater is one of the most important environmental reserves exploited for industrial, agricultural, and domestic uses (Wagh et al 2016). The composition of groundwater tends to be good in most natural aquifers, and as a result, groundwater is increasingly been exploited as it meets the basic requirements for most uses. While groundwater is increasingly exploited in response to population pressure (Bertrand et al 2016; Shang et al 2016; Parisi et al 2018; Cavalcante Júnior et al 2019), increased urbanization (Minnig et al 2018; Tam and Nga 2018; Hughes 2019), industrialization (Zheng et al 2019) and irrigation farming (Panaskar et al 2016; Fabbri et al 2016; Pulido-Bosch et al 2018), only about 22% of the Earth’s 37 km (freshwater) is found in aquifers as groundwater (Panaskar et al 2016). The rate of annual global groundwater withdrawal, even though may vary with climate and geography, is about 1500 km, which is above the normal rates of annual global groundwater recharge or replenishment (Joshi et al 2018)
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