Human-landscape interactions in Halkidiki (NC Greece) over the last 3.5 millennia, revealed through palynological, and archaeological-historical archives

Abstract

The palynological investigation of a sediment core from the Tristinika coastal marsh reveals the strong correlation between vegetation development and human settlement in Halkidiki and provides the first complete record of vegetation transformations over the last 3.5 millennia. Taking into consideration the climatic variability of this period, the correlation of pollen data to the rich archaeological and historic archives elucidates the interactive human-environment relationship, in the vicinity of Torone an important ancient harbour of Halkidiki and Mount Athos with its great monastic history. The pollen record shows distinct landscape changes in which an impressive dominance of Erica heaths is succeeded by the expansion of Mediterranean pine woodlands and other maquis vegetation and different land uses (olive, cereal cultivation) show alternating phases of expansion and contraction. Signs of Olea and cereal cultivation appear in the Mycenaean era. Extensive Olea cultivation marks the Archaic/mid-Roman era and post-Byzantine/modern era. Systematic cereal cultivation starts in the Archaic but peaks in late-Roman/early-Byzantine era, it returns in the post-Byzantine era and peaks in Ottoman/Modern Times. Animal husbandry is the most regular human activity in the area and the cause of the great expansion of heaths. The most impressive phase of the diagram coincides with the period of the plague of Justinian (6th–8th century CE) that leads to a collapse of human activity in the area and to an abrupt expansion of Mediterranean pine and oak woodlands due to favorable climatic conditions and the lack of grazing pressure.