Abstract
Rapid economic development has caused industrial expansion into residential communities, leading to higher fecal pollution loads that could be discharged into aquatic environments. However, little is known regarding the potential microbial impact on human health. This study investigated microbial contamination from coastal industrial–residential community areas in nine sampling sites in waterways during three dry events. A general microbial source tracking (MST) marker, GenBac3, was detected in all samples from all three events, indicating continuing fecal pollution in the area, mostly from human sewage contamination. This was shown by the human-specific genetic marker crAssphage (88.9%) and human polyomavirus (HPyVs; 92.6%) detection. Enteric human adenovirus (HAdV40/41) showed three positive results only from residential sites in the first event. No spatial difference was observed for MST markers and traditional fecal indicators (total coliforms and Escherichia coli) in each event. Still, a significantly lower abundance of GenBac3, HPyVs, and total coliforms in the first sampling event was detected. Spearman’s rho analysis indicated a strong correlation among certain pairs of microbial parameters. Multivariate analysis revealed two clusters of samples separated by land use type (industrial vs. residential). According to factor analysis of mixed data, the land use parameter was more associated with physicochemical parameters (i.e., salinity, conductivity, water temperature, and dissolved oxygen). A Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) was then conducted to estimate the annual infection risks of HAdV40/41 for non-potable water reuse purposes using predicted concentrations from crAssphage and HPyVs. The highest risks (95th percentiles) were ranked by food crop irrigation, aquaculture, and toilet flushing, at 10–1, 10–2, and 10–3 per person per year (pppy). Required treatment levels to achieve a 10–4 pppy annual infection risk were estimated. QMRA-based water treatment scenarios were suggested, including chlorination for toilet flushing reuse and depth filtration prior to chlorination for aquaculture and food crop irrigation. Microbial monitoring combined with a QMRA could provide better insights into fecal pollution patterns and the associated risks, facilitating effective water quality management and appropriate prior treatments for water reuse.
Highlights
With rapid industrialization, the expansion of industries into peri-urban or rural communities has emerged in many geographical areas (Panyathanakun et al, 2013; Tian et al, 2017; Khan et al, 2020)
The microbial source tracking (MST) marker abundance was investigated in surface water near the mixed land use of industrial and residential areas
Fecal contamination was indicated by GenBac3 level in this study, which were slightly lower than those found in untreated sewage in Thailand (Kongprajug et al, 2020), but slightly higher than the Tha Chin River in Central Thailand (Kongprajug et al, 2019a)
Summary
The expansion of industries into peri-urban or rural communities has emerged in many geographical areas (Panyathanakun et al, 2013; Tian et al, 2017; Khan et al, 2020). The establishment of industries and industrial estates brings non-local labor, which promotes economic development in the communities. The mismanagement of industrial pollution has caused adverse health effects related to chemical exposure (García-Pérez et al, 2020; Khan et al, 2020; Lin et al, 2020). Efforts to reduce environmental and health impacts have been undertaken by promoting the mixed-use development concept, with careful consideration of safety to residents and environments (Altes and Tambach, 2008; Zagow, 2020). As summarized by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), an ecoindustrial park model is designed to consider the environmental dimension by encouraging the efficient use of resources, waste reduction and reuse, and chemical management (UNIDO, 2019). Many countries have adopted the industrial ecology concept (Piadeh et al, 2014; Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand, 2019; Susur et al, 2019; Hong and Gasparatos, 2020; Shah et al, 2020), and it was found to have successfully raised trust and improved relationship with adjacent communities (Yamsrual et al, 2019)
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