Abstract
Concentrations of 19 organophosphate esters (OPEs) were determined in dust samples collected from house and car indoor microenvironments in three Colombian cities. ∑OPE concentrations ranged from 1.31 to 599 μg/g. Mean concentrations of dust homes were 82.6, 48.3, and 46.7 μg/g for Cartagena, Bogotá, and Medellín, respectively. The pollution inside cars was somewhat higher than in houses, with a mean value of 231 μg/g. Sixteen compounds were detected, being TPHP, DCP, TEP, and TCEP the most frequently detected. As for OPEs with higher levels in houses, we found (mean ± SD) 35.2 ± 37.1 μg/g for TDCIPP in Cartagena, 35.6 ± 80.2 μg/g for TPHP in Cartagena, 15.9 ± 31.4 μg/g for DCP in Cartagena, 35.7 ± 19.1 μg/g for TBOEP in Bogotá, 15.7 ± 14.8 μg/g for 4IPPDPP in Medellín, and 17.5 ± 22.9 μg/g for TCEP in Cartagena, while the highest OPE value found in cars was 176 ± 144 μg/g for TDCIPP. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of OPEs through dust ingestion ranged from 0.001 ng/kg bw/day for adults to 110 ng/kg bw/day for toddlers, while dermal absorption ranged from 0.02 ng/kg bw/day for adults to 42.7 ng/kg bw/day for infants. Overall, the EDIs of dust ingestion were three times greater than those of dust dermal absorption. The estimated EDIs were several orders of magnitude below the corresponding reference doses. However, the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for TCEP ranged from 1.1 × 10-5 for infants in Bogotá to 4.3 × 10-4 for adults in Cartagena, while ILCR for TEHP ranged from 8.8 × 10-7 for infants in Bogotá to 1.1 × 10-5 for adults in Bogotá. These estimated ILCRs were higher than the safe limit value of 1 × 10-6 and showed that these populations are exposed to moderate cancer risk.
Highlights
Flame retardants (FRs) are chemical additives that are incorporated into different materials such as plastics, textiles, foams, furniture, and electronic materials[1,2]
Organophosphate esters (OPEs) were detected in all analyzed samples, indicating widespread contamination by these emerging pollutants, with levels ranging between 1.31 and 599 μg/g. ∑OPE concentrations at homes varied between cities, being the highest values those obtained from Cartagena, 82.6 ± 113 μg/g, followed by Bogotá and Medellín with similar values (48.3 ± 34.3 and 46.7 ± 48.1 μg/g, respectively) [Supplementary Figure 1]
Dust ingestion was the dominant pathway for infants and toddlers, whereas dermal absorption was the dominant pathway for teenagers and adults [Figure 2]
Summary
Flame retardants (FRs) are chemical additives that are incorporated into different materials such as plastics, textiles, foams, furniture, and electronic materials[1,2]. Their function is to prevent combustion or reduce the spread of fire after ignition[2]. OPEs are widely used as plasticizers in furniture, textile coatings, upholstery, electronics, paints, polyurethane foams, lubricants, and hydraulic fluids[8]. Tri-n-butyl phosphate (TNBP) causes sick building syndrome, which is related to the effects produced by chemical, physical, biological, and ergonomic agents, often related to the structure, distribution, facilities, and equipment of the building, as described by the World Health Organization[20]. There is evidence that tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) causes adverse effects on thyroid hormone (TH) imbalance in aquatic and avian organisms[22] and thyroid function and hormone homeostasis in mammals[23].
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