Abstract
The accepted Cenozoic geologic and glacial history paradigm (accepted paradigm) considers the southcentral Montana Musselshell-Yellowstone River drainage divide to have originated during Tertiary (or preglacial) time while a new and different Cenozoic geologic and glacial history paradigm (new paradigm) describes how headward erosion of a northeast-oriented Musselshell River valley segment captured huge southeast-oriented meltwater floods to create the drainage divide late during a continental ice sheet’s melt history. Northwest to southeast oriented divide crossings (low points observed on detailed topographic maps where water once flowed across the drainage divide), southeast-oriented Yellowstone and Musselshell River segments immediately upstream from northeast-oriented Yellowstone and Musselshell River segments, and southeast- and northwest-oriented tributaries to northeast-oriented Yellowstone and Musselshell River segments indicate a major southeast-oriented drainage system predated the northeast-oriented Yellowstone and Musselshell River segments. Closeness of the divide crossings, divide crossing floor elevations, large escarpment-surrounded erosional amphitheater-shaped basins, and unusual flat-floored internally drained basin areas (straddling the drainage divide), all suggest the previous southeast-oriented drainage system moved large quantities of water which deeply eroded the region. In the mid-20th century geomorphologists working from the accepted paradigm perspective determined trying to explain such erosional landform evidence from the accepted paradigm perspective was a nonproductive research activity and now rarely investigate erosional landform origins. On the other hand, the new paradigm appears to explain most, if not all observed erosional landform features, although the two paradigms lead to significantly different regional Cenozoic geologic and glacial histories that cannot be easily compared.  
Highlights
1.1 Statement of the ProblemScientific paradigms according to Thomas Kuhn (1970) are the seldom challenged rules and assumptions which researchers in various scientific disciplines use to find and explain evidence
As this paper demonstrates detailed topographic map evidence in the Musselshell-Yellowstone River drainage divide area can be explained by large southeast-oriented floods, which headward erosion of the northeastoriented Musselshell River captured and diverted in a north direction
Southeast-oriented tributaries flowing to northeast-oriented Musselshell River and Yellowstone River segments, Musselshell River and Yellowstone River southeast-oriented segments which are immediately upstream from northeastoriented Musselshell and Yellowstone River segments, and numerous divide crossings along the Musselshell-Yellowstone River drainage divide can be explained if headward erosion of the northeast-oriented Yellowstone River valley and of the northeast- and north-oriented Musselshell River valley were across a preexisting southeast-oriented drainage system with the Musselshell-Yellowstone River drainage divide being created when headward erosion of the northeast- and northoriented Musselshell River valley captured southeast-oriented flow that had been moving into the previously eroded northeast-oriented and deep Yellowstone River valley
Summary
1.1 Statement of the ProblemScientific paradigms according to Thomas Kuhn (1970) are the seldom challenged rules and assumptions which researchers in various scientific disciplines use to find and explain evidence. This paper’s southcentral Montana Musselshell-Yellowstone River drainage divide study region (identified in figure 1 and shown in detail in figure 2) contains yet to be addressed drainage and erosional landform features including the drainage divide itself, significant Yellowstone and Musselshell River direction changes, and large escarpment-surrounded amphitheater-shaped basins. These are large-scale erosional landforms deserving of the geomorphology research community’s attention, but to date many of these features have yet to be satisfactorily explained. The author of this paper, Clausen (2020), suggested the accepted Cenozoic geologic and glacial history paradigm http://esr.ccsenet.org
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