How the west was won: genetic reconstruction of rapid wolf recolonization into Germany\u2019s anthropogenic landscapes

Anne Jarausch,Verena Harms,Gesa Kluth,Carsten Nowak,Ilka Reinhardt

doi:10.1038/s41437-021-00429-6

Abstract

Following massive persecution and eradication, strict legal protection facilitated a successful reestablishment of wolf packs in Germany, which has been ongoing since 2000. Here, we describe this recolonization process by mitochondrial DNA control-region sequencing, microsatellite genotyping and sex identification based on 1341 mostly non-invasively collected samples. We reconstructed the genealogy of German wolf packs between 2005 and 2015 to provide information on trends in genetic diversity, dispersal patterns and pack dynamics during the early expansion process. Our results indicate signs of a founder effect at the start of the recolonization. Genetic diversity in German wolves is moderate compared to other European wolf populations. Although dispersal among packs is male-biased in the sense that females are more philopatric, dispersal distances are similar between males and females once only dispersers are accounted for. Breeding with close relatives is regular and none of the six male wolves originating from the Italian/Alpine population reproduced. However, moderate genetic diversity and inbreeding levels of the recolonizing population are preserved by high sociality, dispersal among packs and several immigration events. Our results demonstrate an ongoing, rapid and natural wolf population expansion in an intensively used cultural landscape in Central Europe.

Highlights

MethodsStudy area and sample collectionWithin the European Union (EU), where Germany is a member state, the wolf is listed in Annex II and IV under the conservation legislation of the EU Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC), with the overall goal of reaching the ‘Favourable Conservation Status, FCS’ (Article 2, Council Directive 92/43/EEC)
Wilderness areas are rapidly declining across the planet, while available habitats and population numbers of large mammals shrink globally (Di Marco et al 2014; Watson et al 2016)
The probability of identity (PID) was 2.8 × 10−09 and the probability of identity between siblings (PIDsib) was 1.85 × 10−04, indicating that the presence of individuals sharing the same genotype by chance was very unlikely within the population

Summary

Methods

Study area and sample collectionWithin the European Union (EU), where Germany is a member state, the wolf is listed in Annex II and IV under the conservation legislation of the EU Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC), with the overall goal of reaching the ‘Favourable Conservation Status, FCS’ (Article 2, Council Directive 92/43/EEC). Included in Article 2, the conservation status of the wolf as priority species needs to be monitored by the member states (Article 11). The wolf population in Germany has been monitored since 2001. The major objectives of the German wolf monitoring are the annual assessment of the area of occurrence and the population size given as the minimum number of packs (including reproductions), scent-marking pairs and territorial single wolves. In Germany, all wolf monitoring activities are coordinated and conducted by the 16 federal states, following the German monitoring standards for large carnivores (Reinhardt et al 2015), where genetic analyses constitute a key part. Genetic samples are regularly collected in all federal states with occasional or regular wolf presence. As the monitoring activities during the initial phase of wolf recolonization were intense, we assume that all packs were identified at least until 2013

Results

Discussion

Conclusion