How deep are the oceans?

Blue economy is an economic system or sector that seeks to conserve marine and freshwater environments while using them in a sustainable way to develop economic growth and produce resources such as energy and food. In terms of the global economy, around 90 per cent of all internationally traded goods are shipped by sea, and the market value of marine and coastal resources and industries is estimated at US$3 trillion per year or about 5 per cent of global gross domestic product. Sustainable use of ocean, seas and marine resources, as set out in SDG14, lies at the center of a sustainable blue economy. Sri Lanka‘s coastline is 1,340 kilometres and approximately 33 percent of Sri Lanka's population lives in coastal areas that support diverse livelihoods, from fishing to tourism to manufacturing and modern urban services. The coastal areas often provide excellent soil and climatic conditions for agriculture, which has been practiced for thousands of years and plays an important role in the economy of coastal areas. Apart from the traditional rice based farming systems it also comprise of coastal fishing and coastal aquaculture, seaweed cultivation, coconut based cropping systems, commercial cash cropping systems and homestead farming systems. With regards to forests, mangroves, coastal forests, savannah woodlands, dry forests are present in these areas. Further, coral reefs, sea grass beds, salt marshes also play an important role in sustaining the balance as together they provide habitats for biodiversity, food, shade, medicine, products for the industry, protection of the coastline and carbon sequestration. However, these ecosystems are threatened due to numerous factors; climate change (as it induces flooding, shoreline erosion, salinity intrusion, temperature rise), due to conflicting activities such as operational in these coastal areas such as infrastructure including shoreline structures (harbors, breakwaters, tourist hotels), other tourism activities, industry etc. On the face of this, these ecosystems are often in the frontline to get depleted. The habitats are also getting modified due to the increase of toxicity from both inland and marine pollution, invasion of species. Therefore more concerted effort need to be exerted for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources if the country wants to reap the benefits of the blue economy sustainably. As oceans are shared by many countries, actions need to be taken at country, region and even global levels in the areas of regulation, technology transfer, enhancing awareness and education. A mechanism for regular monitoring is a must and this responsibility need to be shared by all the stakeholders. It is imperative to zone the coastal areas so that complementary activities will be lumped together. It is also required to strengthen the already available international agreements between the member countries such as South Asian Seas Programme, Programmes with the International Maritime Organisations, IORA (Indian Ocean Rim Association), BIMSTECH in arriving at regional policies and action plans and implementation of same with proper monitoring. The quantification of the resource is a vital step. It is also important to operationalize the Coastal Zone Management Plans in existence and declare Special Area Management Sites to ensure conservation and sustainable use of these resources. 
 Keywords: Coastal agriculture, Forestry, Blue economy, Sustainable development goals, Management plans

One of the greatest challenges for sustaining the ecosystem services that we, as a society, derive from marine ecosystems is to minimize the knowledge gap relating to marine ecosystem values. That is, identifying, eliciting and understanding the economic value of the ecosystem services that marine systems provide for societies world-wide is key to ensuring sustainable resource use and environmental management of these ecosystems. This is particularly problematic for the ecosystem services derived from the deep sea as a tremendous knowledge gap exists for the many marine ecosystems that comprise the deep sea. Addressing this gap in knowledge may, directly and indirectly, facilitate actionable strategies for successful climate change adaptation and reduce the degradation of these important marine ecosystems. Estimating values for certain types of marine ecosystem services in particular the deep sea is imperative for understanding the economic trade-offs associated with human actions and resource use of marine resources. Identifying, exploring and understanding the economic benefits and costs associated with the human resource use of marine systems is also crucial for circumventing irreversible damage to ecosystems, and for addressing the growing problem of ecosystem degradation of marine ecosystems. However, a knowledge gap remains in terms of eliciting and understanding how vulnerable marine ecosystems, such as coral reefs and the deep-sea, generate economic value to local economies, and for societies on a global scale. By employing a variety of quantitative and qualitative methodologies, this thesis explores the economic value of the ecosystems of coral reefs and the deep-sea, respectively. The thesis investigates various aspects of the economic contribution of these ecosystems, namely: (i) the local economic contribution of ) Fiji's coral reefs to tourism; and ii) the economic value of the deep- sea's ecosystems to human societies, globally. Moreover, it discusses the importance of exploring the social and non-monetary value of coral reefs to human well-being in the South Pacific Island Countries (SPICs). The research of this thesis therefore constitutes a genuine contribution to understanding how changes in these marine ecosystems impact on economies and human well-being, now and in the future. Although the full extent to which ecosystem degradation of marine ecosystems will impact economies and societies globally remains uncertain, its impacts are already being witnessed, e.g. through ocean acidification, sea-level rise, reduced fish stocks and changing environmental conditions. In turn, these impacts affect human survival and well-being by negatively impacting fishery incomes, food security and coastal protection in many countries around the world. Action and investment plans for reducing the ecosystem degradation of marine systems are urgently needed to protect the value of those ecosystem services to human societies. Deepening our understanding of marine ecosystems' economic contributions constitutes a crucial component of facilitating action plans and investments for sustainable resource use and development. Valuation of vulnerable marine ecosystems is important for several reasons. First, valuation of an ecosystem's contribution to society demonstrates the importance of that ecosystem for social stability, economic growth and human well-being, thereby improving public awareness of that ecosystem's significance. Second, ecosystem valuation can inform policy and decision-making for future conservation programs and legislation pertaining to the human use of marine resources. Third, ecosystem valuation creates important incentives to invest in the protection of marine systems as it outlines the connection between the ecological functioning of marine systems on the one hand, and economic output and stability on the other hand. Fourth, ecosystem valuation can also raise awareness about the importance of protecting biodiversity. Finally, ecosystem valuation of marine ecosystems is especially important for supporting decision-making related to the resource-use of marine ecosystems for which very limited information exists on their economic contribution. The thesis starts with an introduction and a literature review of the main themes and concepts along with the problems, challenges and opportunities associated with the ecosystem valuation of coral reefs and the deep-sea. Subsequently, the research studies of this thesis, which constitutes chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 are presented. Specifically, chapter 2 explores the economic impacts of future (hypothetical) deep-sea mining activities on Fiji's tourism industry, through a contingent behaviour study; chapter 3 discusses the need for developing non-monetary and social ecosystem valuation methodology in order to elicit marine ecosystems' importance for human well-being in the SPICs; chapter 4 explores current knowledge about the deep-sea's economic value through a systematic review and meta-analysis; and chapter 5 identifies the four main priorities for future ecosystem valuation, policy-making and research pertaining to the deep-sea. This thesis makes a small but significant contribution to the knowledge base of the economic value of the ecosystems of coral reefs and the deep-sea, respectively, and to developing future ecosystem valuation by means of introducing the social willingness-to commit (Social WTCommit) technique. Finally, this thesis can contribute to policy-making, decision-making and legislation pertaining to the deep-sea and coral reefs, locally and globally.

Detailed knowledge of the shape of the seafloor is crucial to humankind. Bathymetry data is critical for safety of navigation and is used for many other applications. In an era of ongoing environmental degradation worldwide, bathymetry data (and the knowledge derived from it) play a pivotal role in using and managing the world’s oceans in a way that is in accordance with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 - conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. However, the vast majority of our oceans is still virtually unmapped, unobserved, and unexplored. Only a small fraction of the seafloor has been systematically mapped by direct measurement. The remaining bathymetry is predicted from satellite altimeter data, providing only an approximate estimation of the shape of the seafloor. Several global and regional initiatives are underway to change this situation. This paper presents a selection of these initiatives as best practice examples for bathymetry data collection, compilation and open data sharing as well as the Nippon Foundation-GEBCO (The General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans) Seabed 2030 Project that complements and leverages these initiatives and promotes international collaboration and partnership. Several non-traditional data collection opportunities are looked at that are currently gaining momentum as well as new and innovative technologies that can increase the efficiency of collecting bathymetric data. Finally, recommendations are given towards a possible way forward into the future of seafloor mapping and towards achieving the goal of a truly global ocean bathymetry.

Achieving Coherent Policies for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Ecosystems

Blue Economy is a management system for all aquatic ecosystem resources, including marine and terrestrial ecosystems, related to economic value, sustainability of ecosystems and production resources, and distribution of benefits. The adoption of this concept in Indonesia uses the term inclusive and sustainable blue economy to emphasize the equitable distribution of benefits from the development of the blue economy by ensuring the sustainability of its carrying capacity. This paper explains the importance of managing Indonesian fisheries resources based on the blue economy concept to ensure the sustainability of existing fisheries resources. The literature study method issued by agencies and strategic stakeholders is the primary reference in this study. In this study, it was found that the significant challenges faced were the problem of environmental damage due to illegal activities such as illegal fishing, damage to mangrove forests, seagrass ecosystems, coral reefs, and production activities and the fisheries industry that often pays little attention to sustainability aspects so that it is deemed necessary to implement sustainable fisheries management policies that must focus on several urgent matters to achieve Indonesia's blue economy goals. Based on this, as a role model for research purposes, recommendations and research efforts have been made with a roadmap for the sustainable use of pelagic fisheries resources based on Indonesia's blue economy program in the Bone Bay area. Sustainable fisheries management based on the blue economy concept can be developed and applied well through collaboration and synergy with all existing stakeholders consisting of the government, universities, NGOs, and fishing communities

The concept of the blue economy is a part of a new wave of economic thought that emphasizes the sustainable use of natural resources in the world?s oceans, seas and coastal areas. The blue economy, which is dominated by the principle of sustainability, is directly contrasted with the development of another cycle of linear exploitation of limited planetary resources. In contrast, a sustainable blue economy envisages economic activities such as greening shipping, coastal renewable energy, carbon sequestration, eco-tourism, genetic marine resources, sustainable aquaculture and the development of new seafood as new trends in the decades ahead. The paper analyzes the key postulates of the blue economy concept, as well as European experiences and challenges in this field, using the methods of theoretical analysis. Based on the empirical findings of the paper, the general conclusion is that the oceans, coastal areas and marine activities will play a crucial role for the economic and environmental future of the European Union and its citizens. The European blue economy can and must be a central and solid pillar that contributes to the general resilience of society itself. Overall, the European Union has recognized the importance of the blue economy in generating new jobs and achieving prosperity and security, but its potential has yet to be unlocked. What is important is that the affirmation of the concept of the blue economy takes place in the spirit of the fundamental principles of the 2020 strategy, according to which growth must be smart (with respect to integration of cutting edge science-based, innovative solutions and industrial leadership), sustainable (in economic, social and ecological terms tackling societal challenges) and inclusive (considering the multitude of coastal, marine and maritime activities and trade-offs between them). The general lesson is that the European institutions responsible for ocean health and safety must seriously consider an appropriate framework that allows the blue economy to thrive while maintaining high standards of sustainable development in line with the EU?s vision for a carbon-free society. When it comes to the European Union (and its members), the development of the sustainable and fair blue economy in the coming period should take place in accordance with the principles of the European Green Agreement, as a long-term strategy for sustainable growth, which will require: transformation of value chains of the blue economy in terms of moving away from linear business models to circular ones, with less resource consumption and waste; introduction of stricter measures against marine pollution, coastal waste and plastics; fossil fuel replacement; investing in biodiversity conservation; restoration and protection of ecosystems; promoting nature-based solutions and options and incubating marine renewable energy and innovative blue biotechnology. At the same time, all blue economy sectors have to reduce their climate and environmental impact and contribute to the recovery of marine ecosystems. In achieving overarching goals such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing resource efficiency and reducing overall environmental impact, the EU should focus on five promising and innovative sectors, namely: blue energy, aquaculture, coastal and maritime 256 tourism, blue biotechnology and seabed mining. To address the previous challenges, special emphasis should be placed on the need for multisectoral, inclusive, transparent and holistic governance (public-private dialogue) to integrate the sustainable use of human resources with environmental protection and social justice. Improving governance processes should primarily be based on: 1. Citizen engagement and ocean literacy, namely, the involvement and empowerment of local communities and 2. ?ffirmation of maritime spatial planning, with the following advantages: protect the environment through early identification of impact and opportunities for multiple use of space; encourage investment by creating predictability, transparency and clearer rules; increase cross-border cooperation between EU countries to develop energy grids, shipping lanes, pipelines, submarine cables and other activities, but also to develop coherent networks of protected areas; and reduce conflicts between sectors and create synergies between different activities.

discussed among the widerpublic. Pressure points in-cluding climate change,waterandfoodavailability,price surges for strategicraw materials, and peakingglobal oil supply are con-verging rapidly in an un-precedented manner. Thecurrent global patterns ofproduction and consump-tion are hitting the reallimitsofglobalecosystems.The global economy seems to be at a turningpoint where decisions are urgent while informa-tion is incomplete.The urgency of addressing issues of industrialmetabolism

Effects of coal contamination on tropical marine organisms

Principles for coral reef restoration in the anthropocene

The Bay of Bengal (BoB) region is under severe threat of marine pollution because of unsustainable management of human activities for the exploration of marine resources. The emergence of the concept of Blue Economy fuels the coastal states to explore more marine resources that will cause much more marine pollution in the region. Therefore, a balance between the exploration and conservation of marine resources is essential for the prevention of unsustainable use and marine pollution. Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) may be a tool for the balance between exploration and conservation of the marine resources in the BoB region. This balance approach will also facilitate to develop a sustainable Blue Economy for the coastal states of the Bay region through sustainable management and use of the marine resources. However, the current regional legal arrangements for management of ocean resources of the BoB do not provide any explicit provisions for the development of MSP in the Bay region. The current regional conventions, agreements, declarations, organisations, programmes and plans have different provisions for management of the marine resources of the BoB. Those legal regimes have several provisions that are relevant and cover different aspects of MSP. However, the current regional arrangements for the management of marine resources are not adequate for the development of MSP for sustainable use and prevention of marine pollution in the BoB. This inadequacy has significantly impacted the objective of sustainable Blue Economy in the Bay region. A uniform agreement among the coastal states is essential to develop a regional MSP in the BoB region. Development of MSP in the BoB will be an effective tool for greening the Blue Economy by sustainable use and protection of the marine environment in the Bay region.

oceans, seas and marine resources for increasing the economic benefits to Small Island developing states and least developed countries for sustainable use of marine resources, including sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism. Blue economy has great potential for boosting the economic growth, employment and sustenance of economy (Figure 1). It supports food security, managing and protecting the ocean environment, creation of high value job and diversification to address new resources for energy, new drugs and value chemicals, protein food, deep sea minerals, security and threats including services to human welfare and measures for resilience climatic changes. Considering its wide range of valuable resources, the Blue Economy is gaining increasing interest in Indian Ocean Rim Region for the economic development and for the human welfare. Indian Ocean supports with wide array of biodiversity and ecosystem resources from mangroves, coral reefs and sea-grass beds to deep oceans and provides economic value products

Australia's Great Barrier Reef

In the summer of 2005, while Atlantic hurricanes battered coastlines from Cuba to Mexico, the Eastern Caribbean baked under a relentless sun with barely a breeze to cool the air. Tourists and locals alike wilted in the heat, and below the sea, marine life and corals in particular suffered as well. The windless calm settled in just as a buildup of unusually warm water began accumulating in the region. Ordinarily, easterly trade winds would have churned the sea, helping it to cool. But thanks to an unprecedented heat wave beginning in May—the result of a confluence of factors related to climate change, scientists say—water temperatures in the Eastern Caribbean climbed and stayed high for months, reaching levels that by September would be warmer than any recorded in 150 years. The heat disturbed a symbiotic partnership that coral animals normally maintain with a type of algae called zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae supply corals with essential nutrients produced by photosynthesis, particularly carbon, in return for the shelter and access to sunlight provided by the reefs. The algae also impart color to the corals, which themselves are colorless. But as sea temperatures rose, the zooxanthellae disappeared, leaving their carbon-deprived hosts behind to starve. The reefs turned snow white, the color of the underlying stonelike structures they had built up over centuries, in a phenomenon known as coral bleaching. As the heat wave progressed, it left a trail of bleached reefs the likes of which had never been seen in the Caribbean. By year’s end, coral cover ranging from 90% in the Virgin Islands to 52% in the French West Indies was affected. Coral bleaching isn’t always fatal—if water temperatures cool in time, the zooxanthellae might return, allowing corals to recover. But in parts of the Eastern Caribbean, the reefs never got a chance. Almost as soon as their recovery started, they were attacked by diseases affecting a range of coral species down to 60 feet. By 2007, roughly 60% of the coral cover in the Virgin Islands and 53% in Puerto Rico’s La Parguera Natural Reserve was dead—an unprecedented tragedy. The Eastern Caribbean disease outbreak came on the heels of what’s been a rough several decades for coral reefs worldwide. Long suffering from land-based pollution, habitat destruction, and overfishing, coral reefs now must also contend with climate change, which has accelerated their global decline. This puts a wealth of biodiversity at risk. Reefs support up to 800 types of coral, 4,000 fish species, and countless invertebrates. Reef-dwelling species numbering in the hundreds of thousands may not even be catalogued yet, some scientists speculate. The implications of these declines could be as disastrous for human health as they are for marine life. Globally, reefs provide a quarter of the annual fish catch and food for about 1 billion people, according to the United Nations Environment Programme. Reefs protect shorelines from storm surges, which could become more powerful as sea levels rise with climate change. Tourism—a mainstay of coastal economies in the tropics, worth billions in annual revenue—could suffer if reefs lose their appeal. Reefs are also a long-standing source of medicines to treat human disease. Being attached to reefs, corals and other immobilized marine animals can’t escape predators, so they deploy a range of chemical compounds to deter hunters, fight disease, and thwart competing organisms. Two antiviral drugs (vidarabine and azidothymidine) and the anticancer agent cytarabine were developed using compounds extracted from Caribbean reef sponges. Another product called dolastatin 10, isolated from the sea hare (Dolabella auricularia) of the Indian Ocean, has been investigated as a treatment for breast and liver cancers and leukemia. Many more lifesaving medicines and useful chemical products could one day be derived from reef dwellers, experts say. Saving these ecosystems is imperative on a range of levels, says Caroline Rogers, a marine ecologist with the U.S. Geological Survey in St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. “We have to save them for economic, ecological, aesthetic, and even spiritual reasons,” she says. “People need to feel connected with nature and with systems that are bigger than they are. Coral reefs are awe-inspiring—we’re losing something that we barely understand.”

This paper aims to an efficient method for submarine cable route design using online seafloor classification from sonar scanlines conducted by an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). Currently, the cable route design works are carried out by experienced surveyors and engineers by hand. An online seafloor classification using an AUV with automated route planning method can improve the efficiency for submarine cable construction. Side scan sonar is a common device used for seafloor mapping and obstacles detection. In order to implement online seafloor classification and mapping, an AUV equipped with a side scan sonar is utilized to gather sonar scanlines. Scanlines are analyzed on the fly to classify sea floor using a probabilistic classifier based on Bayes' theorem and Naive assumption to distinguish different types of seafloor. Based on the classified seafloor map, a probabilistic roadmap is constructed and an A∗ algorithm is applied to determine appropriate cable routes on the cable corridor. Seafloor classification, bathymetry, steep slope, angle of alter course, and cable length are the five factors of route design. A result of a cable route survey work between islands was demonstrated. The planned route using the proposed method is close in range to the one recommend by experts.

AimCoral reef communities occurring in deeper waters have received little research effort compared to their shallow-water counterparts, and even such basic information as their location and extent are currently unknown throughout most of the world. Using the Great Barrier Reef as a case study, habitat suitability modelling is used to predict the distribution of deep-water coral reef communities on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. We test the effectiveness of a range of geophysical and environmental variables for predicting the location of deep-water coral reef communities on the Great Barrier Reef.LocationGreat Barrier Reef, Australia.MethodsMaximum entropy modelling is used to identify the spatial extent of two broad communities of habitat-forming megabenthos phototrophs and heterotrophs. Models were generated using combinations of geophysical substrate properties derived from multibeam bathymetry and environmental data derived from Bio-ORACLE, combined with georeferenced occurrence records of mesophotic coral communities from autonomous underwater vehicle, remotely operated vehicle and SCUBA surveys. Model results are used to estimate the total amount of mesophotic coral reef habitat on the GBR.ResultsOur models predict extensive but previously undocumented coral communities occurring both along the continental shelf-edge of the Great Barrier Reef and also on submerged reefs inside the lagoon. Habitat suitability for phototrophs is highest on submerged reefs along the outer-shelf and the deeper flanks of emergent reefs inside the GBR lagoon, while suitability for heterotrophs is highest in the deep waters along the shelf-edge. Models using only geophysical variables consistently outperformed models incorporating environmental data for both phototrophs and heterotrophs.Main ConclusionExtensive submerged coral reef communities that are currently undocumented are likely to occur throughout the Great Barrier Reef. High-quality bathymetry data can be used to identify these reefs, which may play an important role in resilience of the GBR ecosystem to climate change.