Abstract
BackgroundExecutive functions (EFs) not only play an important role in shaping adolescent’s goal-directed, future-oriented cognitive skills under relatively abstract, non-affective conditions (Cool EF), but also under motivationally significant, affective conditions (Hot EF). Empirical evidence suggest a link between EF, exercise and physical activity, specifically elite adult athletes appear to outperform amateur athletes in Cool EF; however, no previous studies have examined the relationship between Hot and Cool EFs and impulsivity during the developmentally sensitive period of adolescence comparing different types of sport (open- vs. closed-skills), and levels (elite athletes vs. amateurs).MethodsA total 86 boys and girls between 13 and 15 years of age (mean: 14.0, SD: 0.79) from different sports (track-and-field; team handball) were recruited. Participants were further divided into two groups: (a) 40 elite, and (b) 46 amateur athletes. They completed four Cool EF tasks including Trail-Making Test, Trail-Walking-Test, Flanker task, n-back-task, and one Hot EF task on Game of Dice task. Data on subjective impulsivity (UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale; Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-15) was also collected.ResultsThere was a significant overall effect for expertise in favor of elite athletes (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.61, F(14,69) = 3.19, p = 0.001, = 0.393), but no overall main effect for type of sport or an interaction for expertise by type of sport. Specifically, elite athletes showed significantly better performances on dual tasks. For Hot EF, there were no main effects for type of sport, expertise level, training experience or training duration. We also found positive correlations among Cool EF and impulsivity measures, and between Hot EF and Impulsivity, but no significant relationship between Cool and Hot EF.ConclusionThe current understanding of the decisive cognitive abilities does not correspond to sporting reality, so that the tests frequently used are not sensitive enough to distinguish between elite and amateur athletes or different sports. However, it should also be remembered that the factors underlying complex sporting performance are multidimensional and are obviously difficult to trace back to selected partial aspects. Without being able to answer this question conclusively, we proposed a 4-D classification of experimental paradigms, in which we differentiate between tasks of different specificity, between Cool and Hot EF, and between task complexity, and type of sport.
Highlights
While in the past the athlete’s physical ability for explaining sports performance was the main focus, various newer studies have dealt with the interaction of the athlete’s physical and cognitive performance, especially in team sports (Vestberg et al, 2012; Furley and Wood, 2016; Montuori et al, 2019)
Without being able to answer this question conclusively, we propose a 4-Dimensional classification of experimental paradigms, in which we differentiate between tasks of different specificity, between Cool and Hot executive functions (EFs), and between task complexity
It is difficult to determine whether those athletes who perform better in their EF remain and establish themselves in sport, or whether better performance in their EF is due to sporting demands [nature vs. nurture problem; “which came first, the potential athlete with a particular profile of cognitive abilities, or the potential athlete that acquires a particular cognitive skill set as a result of experiencedependent learning and brain plasticity” (Voss et al, 2010, p. 823)]
Summary
While in the past the athlete’s physical ability for explaining sports performance was the main focus, various newer studies have dealt with the interaction of the athlete’s physical and cognitive performance, especially in team sports (Vestberg et al, 2012; Furley and Wood, 2016; Montuori et al, 2019). If one considers the characteristics of team sports such as soccer, which requires a “cool head” for permanent decision-making under time pressure in dynamically changing and unpredictable situations (Huijgen et al, 2015), the relevance of cognitive functions becomes very clear In this context, it should be noted that it is not exclusively a matter of cooling the Hot EF. Further incidents on German football pitches show that violence against referees can no longer be dismissed as isolated actions All these examples are related to impulsivity and self-control, which seem to pass through a sensitive phase in adolescents (Somerville and Casey, 2010; Zelazo and Carlson, 2012; Casey and Caudle, 2013). Empirical evidence suggest a link between EF, exercise and physical activity, elite adult athletes appear to outperform amateur athletes in Cool EF; no previous studies have examined the relationship between Hot and Cool EFs and impulsivity during the developmentally sensitive period of adolescence comparing different types of sport (open- vs. closed-skills), and levels (elite athletes vs. amateurs)
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