Abstract
While many insects cannot survive the formation of ice within their bodies, a few species can. On the evolutionary continuum from freeze‐intolerant (i.e., freeze‐avoidant) to freeze‐tolerant insects, intermediates likely exist that can withstand some ice formation, but not enough to be considered fully freeze tolerant. Theory suggests that freeze tolerance should be favored over freeze avoidance among individuals that have low relative fitness before exposure to cold. For phytophagous insects, numerous studies have shown that host (or nutrition) can affect fitness and cold‐tolerance strategy, respectively, but no research has investigated whether changes in fitness caused by different hosts of polyphagous species could lead to systematic changes in cold‐tolerance strategy. We tested this relationship with the invasive, polyphagous moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker). Host affected components of fitness, such as larval survivorship rates, pupal mass, and immature developmental times. Host species also caused a dramatic change in survival of late‐instar larvae after the onset of freezing—from less than 8% to nearly 80%. The degree of survival after the onset of freezing was inversely correlated with components of fitness in the absence of cold exposure. Our research is the first empirical evidence of an evolutionary mechanism that may drive changes in cold‐tolerance strategies. Additionally, characterizing the effects of host plants on insect cold tolerance will enhance forecasts of invasive species dynamics, especially under climate change.
Highlights
In temperate environments, the inclement conditions of winter can be a strong selective force on insect life histories
In the face of subzero temperatures and the potentially lethal effects of ice formation, insects generally either avoid freezing or tolerate it under certain conditions (Lee, 2010)
Evolutionary intermediates are likely to exist between freeze avoidance and tolerance (e.g., Overgaard, Sorensen, & Loeschcke, 2010)
Summary
The inclement conditions of winter can be a strong selective force on insect life histories. Epiphyas postvittana is a recent invader to the continental United States (Brown, Epstein, Gilligan, Passoa, & Powell, 2010) with the capacity to feed on over 360 plant genera (Suckling & Brockerhoff, 2010) For this species, host is known to affect immature survival, developmental time, and pupal weight (Danthanarayana, 1975b; Tomkins, Penman, & Chapman, 1989), which are common proxies of ecological fitness (Via, 1990). Host is known to affect immature survival, developmental time, and pupal weight (Danthanarayana, 1975b; Tomkins, Penman, & Chapman, 1989), which are common proxies of ecological fitness (Via, 1990) This species predominantly overwinters as late-instar larvae, which do not enter diapause and are generally considered freeze avoidant (Buergi, Roltsch, & Mills, 2011; Bürgi & Mills, 2010). We found that as components of fitness decreased, the extent of survival to partial freezing increased, supporting the hypothesis of Voituron et al (2002) that low initial fitness may favor a shift toward freeze tolerance
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