Abstract
ObjectivesThe adverse effects of cigarette smoking have been widely studied before, whilst the effects of hookah smoking has received less attention, although it is a common habit in the Middle East. Here we have investigated the effects of cigarette and hookah smoking on biochemical characteristics in a representative population sample derived from the Mashhad stroke and heart atherosclerotic disorder (MASHAD) cohort study, from Northeastern Iran.Study designA total of 9840 subjects from the MASHAD population study were allocated to five groups; non-smokers (6742), ex-smokers (976), cigarette smokers (864), hookah smokers (1067), concomitant cigarette and hookah smokers (41).MethodsBaseline characteristics were recorded in a questionnaire. Biochemical characteristics were measured by routine methods. Data were analyzed using SPSS software and p < 0.05 was considered significant.ResultsAfter adjustment for age and sex; the presence of CVD, obesity, metabolic syndrome, DM and dyslipidemia were significantly (p < 0.001) related to smoking status. After multivariate analysis, HDL (p < 0.001), WBC (p < 0.001), MCV (p < 0.05), PLT (p < 0.01) and RDW (p < 0.001), and the presence of CVD (p < 0.01), obesity (p < 0.001), metabolic syndrome (p < 0.05) and DM (p < 0.01) remained significant between cigarette smokers and non-smokers. Between hookah smokers and non-smokers; uric acid (p < 0.001), PLT (p < 0.05) and RDW (p < 0.05), and the presence of obesity (p < 0.01), metabolic syndrome (p < 0.001), diabetes (p < 0.01) and dyslipidemia (p < 0.01) remained significant after logistic regression.ConclusionThere was a positive association between hookah smoking and metabolic syndrome, diabetes, obesity and dyslipidemia which was not established in cigarette smoking.
Highlights
Tobacco smoking is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity globally
There was a positive association between hookah smoking and metabolic syndrome, diabetes, obesity and dyslipidemia which was not established in cigarette smoking
fasting blood glucose (FBG) (p = 0.013), cholesterol (p = 0.045), high density lipoprotein (HDL) (p < 0.001), Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (p < 0.001), uric acid (p < 0.001) and hs-CRP (p < 0.001) were significantly different while low density lipoprotein (LDL) (p = 0.9), triglycerides (p = 0.125), BUN (p = 0.63) and Cr (p = 0.65) were the same between the 5 groups defined by smoking status
Summary
Tobacco smoking is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity globally. Tobacco smoking is responsibleThe hookah is the second most common way of smoking tobacco. Tobacco smoking is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity globally. The hookah is the second most common way of smoking tobacco. The hookah, which is called the Saffar Soflaei et al Diabetol Metab Syndr (2018) 10:33. “waterpipe” or “shisha” is an apparatus invented in 16th century in an attempt to purify tobacco smoke by passing it through water [3]. Hookah use has become prevalent in developing countries. The misconception that inhaling smoke through the hookah is less toxic, and its relative cheap price may be responsible for this increase [4]. A recent study has indicated that hookah smoking is equivalent to smoking of a cigarette [5]
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