Home gardens management of key species in Nepal: a way to maximize the use of useful diversity for the well-being of poor farmers

Traditional homegardens (HGs) are considered to harbor high levels of plant diversity and have been therefore characterized as sustainable agro-ecosystems suitable for on-farm (incl. circa situm) conservation of plant genetic resources. While the functional structure of traditional HGs is poorly understood specifically for semi-arid and arid regions, their plant species richness and diversity is increasingly threatened by recent and fast evolving agricultural transformation processes. This has been particularly claimed for traditional jubraka HG systems of Sudan. Therefore, sixty-one HGs in four villages of the Nuba Mountains, South-Kordofan Province, Sudan, were randomly selected, geographically recorded and plant richness and abundance determined and plant diversity parameters calculated. In addition, socio-economic household data were assessed by interviews and soil samples taken to allow a comprehensive analysis of putative factors affecting HG plant diversity across different villages, levels of commercialization and plant species composition based clusters. A total of 110 species from 35 plant families were grown in the HGs along with 71 ornamentals. Perennial species accounted for 57 % including 12 indigenous fruit tree (IFT) species and six exotic fruit tree species. Mean species richness of useful plant species (excluding ornamentals) per HG was 23 (range 6–46). On average, 41 % of the 23 species per HG were of exotic origin, however, with a large range (21–83 %) among locations. Mean diversity and evenness indices were 1.46 (range 0.49–2.42) and 0.48 (0.15–0.87), respectively. The level of commercialization of HGs only marginally affected species diversity measures although the species richness was significantly higher for commercial than subsistence HGs. Species richness was higher on lower (6.6–7.2) pH soils. IFT richness was highly variable, but non-significantly different across the four locations. Plant species richness and diversity was high in comparison with other HG systems in semi-arid regions. Cluster analysis was found to be a valuable tool to classify HGs and to extract homogeneous HG types with low, intermediate and high richness and diversity. In addition, the share of exotic and ornamental species in HGs indicated a trend towards the loss of traditional farming practices, particularly in areas with good market access. The data did not indicate the hypothesized loss of inter-specific diversity due to commercialization and species richness was numerically even higher for market-oriented HGs compared to subsistence ones.

Clearing of natural ecosystems and land degradation due to unsustainable agricultural practices are becoming threats to the sustainability and productivity of agricultural systems in Burie town administrative, Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. The aim of this paper is therefore to assess the fruit tree species diversity in home garden agro-forestry and their role for supporting local people‘s livelihoods in Burie town administration. Cultivated plants of 72 home gardens were surveyed and critical information were collected through questioner and focus group discussion from 12 households. Fruit tree species diversity (expressed in species richness and evenness) in home gardens in the study sites was determined using the Shannon-Weiner Index. The study basically considers the human consumption fruit trees species. A total of 18 fruit tree species represented by 9-genera and 7-families were recorded in home garden agro-forestry within the three wealth status (poor, medium, and rich) of the selected respondents commonly. From all wealth categories, the highest Shannon diversity index was recorded in rich and the lowest was in poor class category. Similarly, the highest species evenness was recorded in rich wealth category. However, there was no significant difference among rich and medium wealth categories for species richness. The study also revealed that age, land hold size, education status is the cause for species diversity in addition to the wealth status in the study area. Older respondents had significantly higher species richness and diversity than youngsters. It has been also found that almost all (100%) of the sampled households harvest and use at least four types of home garden products for various purposes. Lacks of management practices were the factors which puts the species diversity in question in the study area.

The eastern Himalayan region of Northeast India is well known for its traditional home gardens, which are considered to play important roles in the maintenance of livelihoods of indigenous communities and conservation of biological diversity. This study determines the plant diversity in home gardens and their importance in conservation of plant genetic resources (PGR) through utilization. We studied 90 home gardens in detail located in six villages. Different aspects of the home gardens and plant species were observed directly and through discussion with the farmers. A total of 333 plant species (133 trees, 92 shrubs, and 108 herbs) belonging to 128 plant families with an average of 78 species per home garden were recorded. The size of home gardens ranged between 0.10 and 0.60 ha and showed significant (P<0.001) positive correlation between the garden size and plant species diversity. The species diversity index for trees, shrubs, and herbs was 4.76, 4.39, and 4.58, respectively. The species similarity within each life form was high with 50% for trees, 38% for shrubs, and 49% for herbs. Plant species in the home gardens could be grouped into 11 major use categories with the majority of plants in the medicinal or multiple use category. These home gardens are reservoirs of PGR and play a vital role in sustaining the livelihood of local inhabitants. They are also functioning as domestication and conservation centers of many crop relatives.

Homegardens host a significant portion of plant biodiversity and played an important role towards the development of early agriculture and domestication of crops and fruit trees, a still ongoing process. The study was conducted on homegardens of Arba Minch town, Southern Ethiopia with the aim of documenting the indigenous knowledge on categorization, use and management of useful plants species in ho-megardens. A random sample of 100 homegardens from four sub-cities of Arba Minch town was used to collect useful plant species data. Techniques used were focus group discussion, semi-structured interviews, home garden tour and free listing. A total of 138 useful plant species were documented, of which 12.36% were edible plants, 11.90% income source plants, and 8.92% shade plants. Fabaceae was the dominant family represented by 17 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae with 10 species and Asteraceae and Poaceae with 6 species each. Homegarden size of the study area ranged from 220 to 1235 m2 with an average size of 727.5 m2. The age of homegarden is ranged from 10 years old to 50 years old with an average age of 30. The number of species in the homegarden ranges from 10 to 45 with the average of 27.5. The study indicates that homegardens are contributing to food security, income generation and livelihoods in Arba Minch town through production of ornamental, food plants, fodder, medicinal, timber and construction. The study recommended that the management of useful plant species in homegardens will be scaled up and further expanded and assisted by agricultural extensions in urban areas in Ethiopia.

Objective: To characterize the current condition of home gardens in the Ejido Nueva Esperanza 1st Section,Palenque, Chiapas.Methodology: A semi-structured interview was conducted with 43 families to determine socioeconomic conditions, garden characteristics, floristic composition, and their uses (satisfaction). Gardens were categorized by size (small, medium, and large) and location (center, intermediate, and periphery of the community). Data were analyzed descriptively to obtain frequencies, percentages, and averages. Additionally, Shannon-Wiener (H') and Simpson (S) diversity indices were calculated according to size and location.Results: Families were found to be below the poverty line, with agriculture as their primary activity. A total of 3549 individuals were recorded, grouped into 46 botanical families, 82 genera, and 89 species. Native species were the most dominant at 52%. There were 33 tree species, 33 herbaceous species, 15 shrubs, 5 rosettes, and 3 arborescent species. Families reported using plants for fruit, medicinal purposes, ornamentation, horticulture, timber, condiments, fuel (firewood), and medicinal-horticultural purposes, primarily for self-consumption. The highest number of individuals recorded were fruit trees, with 28 species. Small (H´ = 2.8), intermediate(H '= 2.6), and peripheral (H´´´ =2.6) gardens showed higher diversity similar to Fisher’s alpha.Implications: This study highlights the importance of floristic composition and plant species diversity in home gardens concerning the uses attributed by families.Conclusion: The diversity and composition of plant species in home gardens are determined by their location and size, as well as the value of use that the family attaches to them

Home gardening is an indigenous practice of cultivation that has effectively adapted to local ecological conditions over generations. This study examined the effects of disturbance and garden size on biodiversity to develop a better understanding of vegetation cover and its role in livelihood and provision of forest management in the Vindhyan highlands. Data were collected from 60 gardens which were classified into large (&amp;gt; 650 m2), medium (400–650 m2), and small (&amp;lt; 400 m2), based on size and disturbance gradients viz., high, medium, and low. A total of 133 species from 50 families were recorded, in which trees (47.4%) were dominant followed by shrubs (18%) and herbs (16.5%). With respect to disturbance, the highest number of tree species (39) were found at low disturbance (LD) followed by 33 species in medium disturbance (MD) and 32 species in high disturbhance (HD). The total mean richness of species was greater at LD (20.3 ± 2.3) and lowest at HD (18.5 ± 2.2). Tree density was significantly (P≤ 0.05) higher at LD (293.75 ± 16.1 individual ha–1) as compared to MD (221 ± 11.5 individual ha–1) and HD (210 ± 10.3 individual ha–1). However, the results for shrubs and herbs density were considerably different, where shrubs density was highest at HD (70 ± 6.9 individual per 1,000 m2) and lowest at LD (62.5 ± 5.8 individual per 1,000 m2), while the maximum density of herbs was recorded at MD (466.25 ± 29.8 individual per 100 m2) and minimum at LD (370 ± 21.4 individual per 100 m2). The summed dominance ratio indicated frequent use of garden plants in bio-fencing, vegetables, ornamental, and ethnomedicine. Diversity (P&amp;lt; 0.01) and species richness (P&amp;lt; 0.05) showed a significant positive correlation with garden size. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that the first component (PC1) accounted for 28.6% of variance, whereas the second explained 21.9% of variance in both disturbance and garden size with a cumulative variance of 50.5%. These components depicted the positive association with HD (14.34), SDiv (13.91), TCD (12.47), and HDiv (12.09). We concluded that the diversity of home gardens changed with disturbance, which crucially served as a refuge for native tree species in a degraded landscape. This pattern highlighted the importance of home gardens for plant biodiversity conservation and local livelihood, which must be a viable option for regeneration of deforested dry tropics, while also reducing the burden on dry tropical forest regions.

BackgroundUnderstanding the functional diversity of home gardens and their socio-ecological determinants is essential for mainstreaming these agroforestry practices into agrobiodiversity conservation strategies. This paper analyzed functional diversity of home gardens, identified the socio-ecological drivers of functions assigned to them, and assessed the agrobiodiversity benefits of home gardens functions.MethodsUsing data on occurring species in home garden (HG) and functions assigned to each species by the gardeners, the study combined clustering and discriminant canonical analyses to explore the functional diversity of 360 home gardens in Benin, West Africa. Next, multinomial logistic models and chi-square tests were used to analyze the effect of socio-demographic characteristics of gardeners (age, gender, and education level), agro-ecological zones (humid, sub-humid, and semi-arid), and management regime (single and multiple managers) on the possession of a functional type of home gardens. Generalized linear models were used to assess the effect of the functions of home gardens and the determinant factor on their potential in conserving agrobiodiversity.ResultsSeven functional groups of home gardens, four with specific functions (food, medicinal, or both food and medicinal) and three with multiple functions (more than two main functions), were found. Women owned most of home gardens with primarily food plant production purpose while men owned most of home gardens with primarily medicinal plant production purposes. Finding also showed that multifunctional home gardens had higher plant species diversity. Specifically, crops and crop wild relatives occurred mainly in home gardens with food function while wild plant species were mostly found in home gardens with mainly medicinal function.ConclusionsHome gardening is driven by functions beyond food production. These functions are mostly related to direct and extractive values of home gardens. Functions of home gardens were gendered, with women mostly involved in home food gardens, and contribute to maintenance of crops and crop wild relatives while men were mostly home medicinal gardeners and contribute to the maintenance of wild plant species in home gardens. Although multiple functional home gardens were related to higher plant diversity, there was no guarantee for long-term maintenance of plant species in home gardens.

The study was conducted on homegardens of Hawassa city, Southern Ethiopia with the aim of documenting useful plant species; identifying the internal and external household factors related to useful plant species diversity in and around home gardens and examining its contribution to household food security and income generation. A random sample of 120 homegardens from eight sub-cities of Hawassa city was used to collect useful plant species data. Techniques used were focus group discussion, semi-structured interviews, home garden tour, market survey, free listing, priority ranking, and preference ranking. A total of 258 useful plant species were documented, of which 47.29% were ornamental plants, 29.75% food plants, and 15.89% medicinal plants. Fabaceae was the dominant family represented by 9 genera and 20 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae with 17 and 16 species each respectively. Homegarden size of the study area ranged from 220 to 1235 m2 with a mean size of 571 m2. The age of homegarden is ranged from 15 years old to 55 years old with a mean aged of 28. The number of species in the homegarden ranges from 10 to 45 with the mean of 23. The study indicates that home gardens are contributing to food security, income generation and livelihoods in Hawassa city through production of ornamental, food plants, fodder, medicinal, timber and construction. The study recommended that the management of useful plant species in homegardens will be scaled up and further expanded and assisted by agricultural extensions in urban areas in Ethiopia. &nbsp; Key words: Urban home garden, plant species diversity, household livelihood, food security.

Home gardens (HGs) are thriving traditional food systems safeguarding a rich agrobiodiversity. They supply basic needs as well as ceremonial and religious benefits to households (HHs). However, documentation of HGs in Ethiopia is inadequate and patchy. This ethnobotanical study was carried out in Digelu Tijo District Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia to identify and document plant species diversity in HGs and the associated indigenous ecological knowledge of the local people. Four kebeles were selected based on their worthy traditional HG practice and detailed indigenous knowledge of the community. From these sites, 130 respondents (HG owners) were selected based on their good HG practice and management. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, guided garden tours, group discussions, and market surveys. Data were analyzed by preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, descriptive and inferential statistics, Sørensen’s similarity index, Shannon-Wiener diversity index, and Pearson correlation coefficients. HG areas range from 0.04 ha to 0.25 ha with a mean of 0.12 ha. A total of 72 useful plant species were documented. Fabaceae was the most frequently observed family containing ten species, followed by Solanaceae. The plant species comprised, 33% trees, 23% shrubs, 42% herbs, and 3% climbers. Eight social use categories were identified: edible plants (26%), medicinal plants (24%), forage plants (11%), plants for construction (10%), for income generation (9%), ornamentals (8%), spices (7%) and for shading (5%). The Shannon-Wiener indices of plant diversity (H’) ranged between sites from 2.53 to 3.33. Ecological values of the HGs in the study area include maintenance of soil fertility, habitat provision to many organisms, enhancement of water quality, prevention of soil erosion, carbon sequestration, and improving soil moisture by providing shade. HGs are important for food security and restoring ecosystem services, particularly in ruined regions. The HGs are highly diversified with different plant species providing multiple uses and several ecological goods and services, but their potential is beyond this. They are threatened by various factors like lack of water, lack of access to quality seed/seedlings, disease and pests, poor access to markets, and insufficient technical support by agricultural experts. Therefore, for enhanced and integrated conservation of these rich resources and to ensure food security, joint efforts by all concerned stakeholders are required.

Interactive effects of HIV/AIDS and household headship determine home garden diversity in the Eastern Region of Ghana

Home gardens are long-established traditional farming systems that fulfill diverse community needs while supporting social well-being and ecological sustainability. This study aimed to assess the level of engagement, management practices and plant species diversity in home gardens of Shager City. About 180 households were sampled systematically from six sub-cities. Survey data were collected through garden tours and interviews with households and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Plant species diversity was analysed using Shannon-Weiner and Simpson diversity indices. The scientific names of plant species were confirmed at the National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University. About 85 % of households surveyed in Shager City practise home gardening, showing the community's strong attachment to the practice. Majorly, home gardens are positioned in the front yard due to housing design. Ground-based planting space being practised in the city is incompatible with running land scarcity. The management of home gardens is primarily carried out by female household members. The survey recorded approximately 215 species, predominantly in the ornamental use category and with a herbaceous growth form. The home gardens exhibited high species diversity, implicating their potential in maintaining urban sustainability. Ensete ventricosum was the most frequent species due to its potential for multiple uses and adaptability to varying environments. Plant species richness in the studied home gardens is associated (p &lt; 0.005) with most socioeconomic characteristics of households. The limited economic and nutritional benefits of home gardens require targeted policy and community interventions.

It could be argued that commercially oriented famers pay more attention on reaping short term commercial benefits from their home-gardens and hence would not focus on longer term benefits that could be derived through enhanced biodiversity. Although empirical studies have been conducted to measure trade-offs between commercial orientation and plant diversity, hardly any research has carried out with the focus on homegardens in Sri Lanka. The main objective of this study is to explore the trade-offs between commercial orientation of farmers and plant diversity in home gardens in three districts in Sri Lanka, viz, Batticaloa Kandy and Kurunegala. The specific objectives are to (i) measure the degree of plant diversity in home gardens, (ii) measure the degree of commercial orientation of farmers, and (iii) to econometrically estimate the relationship between plant diversity and commercial orientation of farmers. Data for this study were collected through a survey carried out in the three districts in 2009. Plant diversity was measured using three indices, namely Richness index, Shannon index and Simpson index and the degree of commercial orientation of farmers was measured using a number of proxies to capture the extent of market transactions and perceptions among farmers towards the purpose of farming. A set of multiple regression models were specified treating the level of commercialization, land size, employment status, education, household income and the geographical region as independent variables and plant diversity as the dependent variable. The results of the calculated indices revealed that homegardens in Kandy and Kurunegala districts are quite diverse in plants and it is not that diverse in Batticaloa district. Approximately one half of the famers in Kandy and Kurunegala districts and four fifth of the farmers in Batticaloa are commercially oriented. The regression results showed that the farmers with commercial orientation tend to maintain home gardens with relatively higher plant diversity in Kandy district. However, commercial oriented farmers in Kurunegala district tend tomaintain homegardens with less plant diversity compare to that of noncommercial oriented. The results also revealed that the plant diversity increases with the increase in land extent and 0.42 ha and 0.53 ha was estimated to be the land area which brings about the maximum plant richness in homegardens in Kandy and Kurunegala districts respectively. Sri Lankan Journal of Agricultural Economics Vol.(14-15)No. 1 (2012-2013) pp. 17-42

Home gardens are defined as a system of production of diverse crop plant species, which can be adjacent to household or slightly further away and is easily accessible. Species composition and management systems of Nepalese home gardens are poorly known. The study was conducted to develop an inventory on composition of crop species and varietal diversity to characterise the home gardens of Rupandehi and Gulmi of western Nepal, and to observe the species change over the time for last 10–15 years. Semi-structured Interviews, Direct Observation and Focus Group Discussions were employed to collect primary data. Shannon–Weaver index (SWI) was used to determine the species richness. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to characterise the home gardens. Mid-hill SWI (H′ = 4.41) revealed the higher species diversity (131 species) as compared to terai (123 species). This species richness was significantly higher (p = 0.001) in the mid-hill area. The vegetable species constitute the major component followed by fruits and fodder species that also contributed to the species diversity. The size of home gardens and species richness was positively correlated (rs = 0.29, p = 0.001). Twenty crop species have been lost during the last 10–15 years and eleven species were threatened in the studied home gardens. Inaccessibility of local seed crops and deforestation were the major causes reported accounting for this trend. Self-saved seed was the major source of planting material in home gardens. There is a need to study the seed supply system for these home gardens. Therefore, a challenge is to make these home gardens self-supporting through creating a mechanism on strengthening local seed supply systems for long term sustainability of home garden in agrobiodiversity management.

Home gardens are subsistent agricultural production systems consisting of diverse crop plants which are easily accessible and adjacent to homesteads. They sustainably contribute to livelihoods in developing countries. Regarding the modernization in tropical Africa, there are changes in plant composition of urbanizing areas like Tubah Sub-Division, North West Region, Cameroon while the useful plant diversity in home gardens are poorly or not documented. This study aims to assess the diversity of useful plant species and identify key factors that influence diversity. 120 selected home gardens from Tubah Sub-Division were surveyed using two complementary field sampling approaches: interaction with selected households head through the use of structured questionnaires on garden plants and direct field observation. To assess plant abundance, the entire home garden was considered as a sample plot for tree, shrub, climber and epiphytic plant species while for herbaceous species, five quadrats of 1 m2 were used to count each species. A total of 133 useful plant species belonging to 108 genera and 47 families were recorded, with the number of species varying among the villages. The dominating families were Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Asteraceae. Age of household head and age of home garden were the key factors which significantly influenced the plant diversity. As home gardens in Tubah Sub-Division consist of diverse garden plants which are of great importance, we suggest that home gardening should be promoted, through education and extension services. This study should also be extended to other parts of the North West Region.

The present study was aimed at documenting species composition, utilization and conservation of plant species growing in home gardens of 10 residential areas of Coimbatore city, India. Household interviews and home garden surveys revealed that all the 109 plant species included in 60 families included have someeconomic uses or with ornamental significance. Higher number of species was herbs followed by shrubs, trees, climbers, succulent herbs, vines and sub-shrubs. The families viz., Asteraceae, Apocynaceae and Acanthaceae contributed higher number of plant species than the other families to the home gardens. Thespecies namely, Celosia cristata, Chrysanthemum odoratum and Ocimum basilicum have registered 50% frequency among the home gardens sampled which indicates that these species have distributed and maintained in comparatively higher number of home gardens. The home garden species are mainly under thecategories of vegetables, fruits, ornamentals, economic important species and medicinal. These results further report revealed that homegardens satisfy various household needs like food, ornamentals, medicines, building material, religious and ceremonial uses.