Home and preschool learning environments and their relations to the development of early numeracy skills

Few studies have investigated how preschool and primary school interact to influence children's cognitive development. The present investigation explores German children's numeracy skills between age 3 (1st year of preschool) and age 7 (1st year of primary school). We first identified the influence of preschool experience on development while controlling for child factors, family background, and the quality of the home learning environment (HLE). We then considered how the instructional quality of primary schools influences numeracy. We finally analysed how preschool and primary school interact. We sampled 547 children who attended 97 German preschools. Latent growth curve analyses identified child and family factors related to age 3 numeracy and development to age 7: gender, migration background, socioeconomic status (SES), mother education, HLE. The effects of preschool on numeracy development persist until age 7 with notable effects from process quality. Strengthened efforts are needed to ensure high quality preschool education in Germany.

The present study is based on longitudinal data from a German early childhood education and care (ECEC) governmental initiative assessing children's grammatical and vocabulary development between 2;6 and 4;0 years (N = 1,331), quality of the home learning environment and quality of the preschool setting. Results showed that the quality of the home learning environment predicted development in grammatical skills, but not in receptive vocabulary at age 4, while the effects of preschool process quality showed similar relative impacts on both language outcomes. Further analyses revealed effects of accumulated advantages of preschool quality for children from medium‐ and high‐quality home learning environments in their vocabulary development. The results are compared with previous findings from the German ECEC context and discussed with respect to implications for policy efforts to improve ECEC quality and ways in which both learning environments act together on children's development.

A child’s home environment has been shown to be related to the development of early numeracy skills in some countries. However, significant relationships between home learning environment and math achievement have not consistently been found, and likely vary across different cultural and socio-political contexts. Here we explored the home environment and early numeracy skills of 243 children (3-5 years), who were not attending preschool programmes in very low-income settings in Cape Town, South Africa. Caregivers completed a questionnaire including information regarding experiences of children in the home; children completed a number identification task, a counting task and the Give-N task. The amount of resources in the home learning environment (e.g. the number of books and toys), frequency of home learning activities caregivers did with their children, and caregiver levels of education and income were not associated with number knowledge. While the home learning environment has been shown to be important for developing early numeracy skills in previous research, this study suggests that factors other than the home learning environment may also be important targets to foster numeracy skills and school readiness in low-income settings in South Africa.

Early numeracy skills are crucial for young children's cognitive and mathematical development, particularly during the preoperational stage (ages 2-7), when they begin to develop symbolic thinking and foundational mathematical concepts. This study investigates the progression of early numeracy skills in two preschool-aged children (Child H and Child K), focusing on their ability to engage with numeracy concepts such as counting, cardinality, numeral identification, and number combination. Using a qualitative case study approach, the research observes the children's numeracy behaviors through assessments and direct observation during play-based learning activities. Findings reveal notable differences in the children’s numeracy development: Child H demonstrates stronger skills in one-to-one counting, subitizing, number ordering, and problem-solving, while Child K shows emerging abilities but struggles with tasks such as number comparison and number combination. These differences highlight the variability in the development of numeracy skills, with confident children progressing more rapidly in their understanding of numbers and relationships. The study emphasizes the importance of concrete, hands-on learning experiences in developing mathematical thinking, mainly through physical manipulatives and interactive, game-based activities. The results underscore the need for tailored learning experiences to support children in the preoperational stage, which has implications for early childhood educators in fostering a strong mathematical foundation.

The home learning environment (HLE) played a crucial role in shaping early childhood education, particularly in fostering numeracy skills. A strong HLE was linked to better academic outcomes, making it essential to understand its impact on kindergarten learners' early numeracy performance. This study aimed to determine the HLE and early numeracy performance of Kindergarten learners in Felipe E. Estella Elementary School, Masinloc District, Schools Division of Zambales, during the School Year 2024–2025. The study employed a quantitative-descriptive design. Using universal sampling, 119 home learning facilitators and their corresponding kindergarten learners participated. Data were gathered using a validated researcher-designed questionnaire. The home learning facilitators were predominantly females aged 40–49, college graduates, with two children, cohabitant status, and a monthly family income of P20,000–P39,999, who typically spent less than an hour daily teaching numeracy. They frequently provided learning resources, activities, sessions, and support. Kindergarten learners demonstrated proficient numeracy skills in pattern recognition, understanding shapes, and number recognition but showed developing skills in comparing quantities. Significant differences in HLE were observed based on facilitators' age, sex, civil status, monthly family income, highest educational attainment, and daily hours spent teaching numeracy, except for the number of children. A strong positive correlation between HLE and early numeracy performance was found. The study highlighted the pivotal role of HLE and its significant correlation with numeracy skills development in young learners. An enhanced early numeracy program was developed to improve both HLE and learners' performance. The findings provided a foundation for targeted interventions to strengthen HLE practices and enhance numeracy skills in kindergarten learners. This underscored the importance of engaging home learning facilitators and equipping them with effective strategies for early education.

Numerical literacy is a fundamental skill in early childhood education, influencing later academic performance and cognitive development. A growing body of research has identified several factors that contribute to the development of numeracy skills, including home learning environments, executive function, socio-emotional skills, and socio-economic status. Understanding these factors is crucial for developing effective interventions that support children’s numeracy growth, especially in elementary education. This literature review synthesizes findings from longitudinal studies published between 2010 and 2024, focusing on the impact of home numeracy environments, executive function, socio-emotional skills, and socio-economic factors on early numeracy development. A total of five studies, with sample sizes ranging from small cohorts to large national samples, were analyzed. These studies employed longitudinal designs, assessing children over multiple years to capture the development of numeracy skills from preschool through elementary education. The review highlights the critical role of home learning environments, parental education, and socio-emotional skills in shaping children’s numeracy development. It also identifies bidirectional associations between cognitive and emotional skills, underscoring the need for integrated approaches to numeracy instruction. Socio-economic status was found to indirectly impact numeracy development, with home literacy and numeracy environments mediating this relationship. Long-term effects of early home-based learning on arithmetic fluency were also observed, emphasizing the importance of fostering supportive environments early in education. This review concludes that targeted interventions in home environments, as well as strategies that integrate cognitive and socio-emotional support, can significantly enhance numerical literacy outcomes in elementary education. Further research is needed to address gaps in understanding how these factors interact across diverse cultural and socio-economic contexts.

It is assumed that additionally to the family background and child characteristics, the children’s learning environments are crucial for the acquisition of early competencies. This study aimed to compare the effects of home and institutional learning environment on young children’s vocabulary and to test necessary conditions for a potential compensatory effect of the institutional learning environment. Using longitudinal data from N = 557 preschool children (German National Educational Panel Study), we analysed to what extent family background and children’s characteristics predicted home and institutional learning environments and to what extent these learning environments predicted vocabulary in preschool and primary school. In order to test if both learning environments predict vocabulary separately, we used almost identical indicators to operationalize them. The effects were estimated within a structural equation model. The study revealed that both, home and institutional learning environment, had small and separate effects on children’s vocabulary. The home learning environment was more closely related to the family background, while the institutional learning environment was more closely related to the children’s characteristics. This evokes new possibilities to discuss compensatory effects.

Teacher qualifications, classroom practices, family characteristics, and preschool experience: Complex effects on first graders' vocabulary and early reading outcomes

The present study examines the impact of family risk factors (e.g., migration background, poverty) in early childhood on children’s numeracy skills during preschool in Germany, and if these relations are mediated through the quality of the home learning environment. The data used for this research were collected using the longitudinal study BiKS-3-10 which followed 547 children from the first (average age: 3 years) to the third year (average age: 5 years) of preschool. The hypothesized mediation of quality of the home learning environment can only be interpreted using the home learning environment scale for cognitive promotion. In contrast, the quality of the home learning environment, specifically family support factors, is related neither to children’s development in numeracy nor to family risk. The results highlight the impact of early risk factors on children’s competencies and the mediating role of the quality of the home learning environment.

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of Quizizz as a digital game-based learning tool in enhancing the numeracy skills of Grade 8 students at Louella Gotladera Alcoba National High School. Quasiexperimental research designs were employed, and 30 participants underwent pretest and posttest assessments on basic operations involving integers and real-world integer word problems. In this study, using Quizizz as an interactive tool for numeracy lessons was the intervention. Improvement measures in the students' numeracy skills are done by comparing scores for the pretest and posttest assessments. Paired sample t-tests quantitative analysis showed a significant increase in the mean score: from 19.7 (SD = 5.92) for the pretest to 29.2 (SD = 6.63) for the posttest. The t-value is -18.5 with a p-value of <0.001, which means that improvement is significant, and so it rejects the null hypothesis. These findings suggest that integrating game-based platforms like Quizziz can enhance proficiency in numeracy and positively impact students’ engagement. Besides the quantitative data, it was supported by the thematic analysis conducted on structured interviews that provided qualitative data about student experiences using Quizizz. The structured interview shows real-time feedback and other competition-related features, like leaderboards, increase engagement and enjoyment. At the same time, the understanding of numerical concepts develops over time for anxious students who want more explicit feedback. Thus, this result indicates that Quizzes will be helpful in the development of numeracy skills because they will attribute an interactive nature to learning and make it more fun. This study supports the idea that digital game-based learning platforms must be integrated into the mathematical education environment to achieve better results for students’ development of numeracy skills.

Children develop important competencies in the context of the home learning environment (HLE) long before they enter school. Primary caregivers support children's learning during everyday interactions such as shared reading or playing games. Here, it is helpful to differentiate between the home literacy and ... Children develop important competencies in the context of the home learning environment (HLE) long before they enter school. Primary caregivers support children's learning during everyday interactions such as shared reading or playing games. Here, it is helpful to differentiate between the home literacy and numeracy environment, which are more closely associated with children's literacy and numeracy learning, respectively. Further, formal aspects of the HLE are comprised of teaching activities by the primary caregiver, whereas informal aspects of the HLE consist of various activities that foster children's learning, although learning is not the main focus of the activity. Research shows that children who grow up in a high-quality HLE develop greater competencies and are better prepared for school. In addition, family intervention programs not only enhance the quality of the HLE, but also support children's competencies development. The HLE is closely associated with family background variables such as the socioeconomic status (SES) of a family (i.e. families with a high SES tend to provide higher quality HLEs) or a migration background. Consequently, the HLE acts as a mediator between more distal family characteristics and child outcomes. Further, research indicates that the HLE may not only predict children's early literacy and numeracy competencies, but also later achievement in school as well as more general cognitive abilities and behavioral outcomes. Despite the research on HLE in recent years, we still do not know through which specific mechanisms the HLE impacts children's learning and which facets of the HLE are most important. Further, we are still in need of successful family intervention approaches that are non-intensive and are appealing to all kind of families independent of their background. Finally, we also do not know in which way digital media influences the HLE and if there are specific cultural and regional differences in the HLE. This Research Topic focuses on empirical research and reviews on children's learning in the context of the HLE. For instance, we encourage contributions investigating: - Different facets of the home literacy and/or numeracy environment (e.g. parental attitudes, parental teaching, quality of interactions, etc.) and their association with child competencies - Family interventions to enhance the quality of the HLE and to support children's learning - Assessment tools for assessing the quality of the HLE in varying contexts - The HLE in different countries and cultures - The usage of digital media in the HLE and how digital media impacts on the quality of the HLE - The HLE and children's longer-term development in school - The HLE and various child outcomes such as cognitive, behavioral or motivational competencies - Stability and changes in the HLE and the association with child outcomes

Growing evidence reveals powerful associations between early learning environments and children’s later academic success. Besides the family, which has been shown to be a significant predictor of children’s development, the longer-term benefits of early institutional experiences in the preschool are also of interest, given the high participation rate across all social milieus, and the continuously expanding sector of early childhood education and care. In this paper, we therefore present findings from the study BiKS-3-18 on the short- and long-term effects of early learning environments at home and at preschool on children’s development.The results show that the quality of the home learning environment as well as the quality of the preschool have long term benefits for children’s socio-emotional, language, and mathematical development, although not uniformly for different developmental domains and learning environments. Thereby, the results point to the specificity of environmental impact, as different facets of the learning environments predict different domains of children’s development.

BackgroundMathematics achievement is pivotal in shaping children's future prospects. Cognitive skills (numeracy), feelings (anxiety), and the social environment (home learning environment) influence early math development. MethodA longitudinal study involved 85 children (mean age T1 = 6.4 years; T2 = 7.9) to explore these predictors holistically. Data were collected on early numeracy skills, home learning environment, math anxiety, and their impact on various aspects of math. ResultsThe study found that early numeracy skills, home learning environment, and math anxiety significantly influenced math school achievement. However, they affected written computation, sequences, and comparisons differently. Early numeracy skills strongly predicted overall achievement and comparison subtest performance. ConclusionThese findings underscore the substantial role of math anxiety and home learning environment in children's math achievement. The study emphasizes the need to consider the selective impacts of these factors in future research, shedding light on the multifaceted nature of mathematics achievement determinants.

The concept of “Home Learning Environment” (HLE) covers activities in a family providing intellectual stimulation for a child, such as reading to him or her or visiting libraries. Numerous studies have shown an association between HLE and children's cognitive development. In this longitudinal study, we focus on HLE as a predictor for children's behavioral development, namely, for later symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), controlling for relevant aspects like socioeconomic status (SES), or television viewing behavior. We analyzed the development of ADHD symptoms from kindergarten to the end of grade 2 and possible associations with HLE, SES, and television exposure, using a German community sample (N = 924). Results indicated that ADHD symptoms were negatively and significantly correlated to HLE for all five measurement points as well as to SES (except T4) and to television exposure for T1 to T4. Observing later development, only early HLE but not SES or television exposure served as a significant predictor for ADHD symptoms at school, when age, sex, and ADHD symptoms in kindergarten were controlled for. A structural equation model showed that HLE acted as a mediator between SES and later ADHD symptoms. Our results highlight the importance of the concept of home learning environment also for children's behavioral development. As a consequence, parents should be supported in offering their children a more favorable learning environment.

Although many studies investigated the effects of the home learning environment (HLE) in the preschool years, the constructs that underlie the HLE in the years before the age of three and its effects on language development are still poorly understood. This study therefore investigated the dimensionality of the HLE at age two, its relation to the attendance of low threshold parent-child-courses, and its importance for children’s vocabulary development between age 2 and 3 years against the background of differing family background characteristics. Using data from 1,013 children and their families of the Newborn Cohort of the German National Educational Panel Study, structural equation modeling analyses showed that (1) quantitative and qualitative aspects of the early HLE, i.e., the frequency of stimulating activities, and the quality of parent-child-interactions should be differentiated; (2) that family background variables are differentially associated with the HLE dimensions and (3) that attendance at parent-child courses enriches both aspects of the HLE which in turn (4) are related to the children’s vocabulary development. Our results highlight the need to differentiate aspects of the early HLE to disentangle which children are at risk in terms of which stimulation at home and the possibility to enrich the HLE through low threshold parent-child courses.