History, Deterioration, and Repair of Cement and Concrete in Nineteenth Century Fortifications Constructed by the Royal Engineers

Abstract

History of lime binders and modern cement. Early 19th century concrete in building, mortars and renders, pre-cast concrete, in-situ construction and formwork. Use of concrete in fortress construction after 1860. Deterioration: cracks due to shrinkage, temperature difference in quality, iron joists in roof slabs, roots, frost. Disintegration caused by polluted water, inferior material, faulty mix. Lime efflorescence, stains. Problem of conservation.