Abstract
Acute restraint stress (ARS) is an unavoidable stress situation and may be encountered in different clinical situations. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of ARS on the hippocampus and cerebellum, assess the impact of these effects on the behavior and cognitive function, and determine whether pretreatment with ceftriaxone would attenuate the damages produced by ARS on the hippocampus and cerebellum. Four groups of male mice were included in this study: The control group, ARS group, ceftriaxone group, and ARS + ceftriaxone group. Tail suspension test, Y-maze task, and open field tests were used to assess depression, working spatial memory, and anxiety. The biochemical analyses included measurements of serum cortisol, tumor necrotic factor (TNF), interleukin-6, hippocampal expression of bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP9), lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1), glutamate transporter 1 (GLT1), heat shock protein 90, cerebellar expression of S100 protein, glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), and carbon anhydrase. Histopathological examination of the brain sections was conducted on the hippocampus and cerebellum by hematoxylin and eosin stains in addition to ultrastructure evaluation using electron microscopy. Our results suggested that ceftriaxone had neuroprotective properties by attenuating the effects of ARS on the hippocampus and cerebellum in mice. This effect was demonstrated by the improvement in the cognitive and behavioral tests as well as by the preservation of the hippocampal and cerebellar architecture.
Highlights
Acute restraint strain (ARS) is an inevitable stress situation that might cause autonomic and behavioral alternation [1]
Using SPSS 21 (IBM SPSS Statistics 21; IBM Company, New York, NY, USA), data presented as indicated by the significant decrease (p ≤ 0.05) in the number of line crossings, the duration of central mean ± standard deviation (Mean ± SD), a comparison of quantitative variables between groups square entry, and the time spent in the central square
Cognitive and behavioral tests in the Acute restraint stress (ARS) Group revealed an impaired exploratory behavior as indicated by the significant decrease (p ≤ 0.05) in the number of line crossings, the duration of central square entry, and the time spent in the central square
Summary
Acute restraint strain (ARS) is an inevitable stress situation that might cause autonomic and behavioral alternation [1]. ARS adversely affects the hippocampus both structurally and functionally [3,4]. The cerebellum is the area of the hind brain that plays an important role in cognitive and emotional processes [5]. The dysmetria of thought theory holds that the cerebellum modulates behavior just as the cerebellum controls the pace, intensity, rhythm, and precision of motions, and the speed, ability, continuity, and appropriateness of mental or cognitive processes [6]. Cerebellar impairment has been shown in various psychological conditions, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anxiety disorders [7]
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