Abstract
Abstract. Frazil and grease ice forms in the ocean mixed layer (OML) during highly turbulent conditions (strong wind, large waves) accompanied by intense heat loss to the atmosphere. Three main velocity scales that shape the complex, three-dimensional (3D) OML dynamics under those conditions are the friction velocity u* at the ocean–atmosphere interface, the vertical velocity w* associated with convective motion, and the vertical velocity w*,L associated with Langmuir turbulence. The fate of buoyant particles, e.g., frazil crystals, in that dynamic environment depends primarily on their floatability, i.e., the ratio of their rising velocity wt to the characteristic vertical velocity, which is dependent on w* and w*,L. In this work, the dynamics of frazil ice is investigated numerically with the high-resolution, non-hydrostatic hydrodynamic model CROCO (Coastal and Regional Ocean COmmunity Model), extended to account for frazil transport and its interactions with surrounding water. An idealized model setup is used (a square computational domain with periodic lateral boundaries, spatially uniform atmospheric and wave forcing). The model reproduces the main features of buoyancy- and wave-forced OML circulation, including the preferential concentration of frazil particles in elongated patches at the sea surface. Two spatial patterns are identified in the distribution of frazil volume fraction at the surface: one related to individual surface convergence zones, very narrow, and oriented approximately parallel to the wind/wave direction and one in the form of wide streaks with a separation distance of a few hundred meters, oriented obliquely to the direction of the forcing. Several series of simulations are performed, differing in terms of the level of coupling between the frazil and hydrodynamic processes, from a situation when frazil has no influence on hydrodynamics (as in most models of material transport in the OML) to a situation in which frazil modifies the net density, effective viscosity, and transfer coefficients at the ocean–atmosphere interface and exerts a net drag force on the surrounding water. The role of each of those effects in shaping the bulk OML characteristics and frazil transport is assessed, and the density of the ice–water mixture is found to have the strongest influence on those characteristics.
Highlights
Seasonal sea ice cover in polar and subpolar seas is an important mediator of heat, moisture, and momentum exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean and an indicator of short- and long-term changes in weather and climate
We address one of the largely unanswered questions related to the frazil– ocean mixed layer (OML) interactions: whether frazil crystals can be regarded as positively buoyant but otherwise passive tracers carried by the surrounding water or whether they significantly modify the OML dynamics and properties, e.g., by weakening downwelling currents or reducing momentum and heat transfer from the atmosphere
The model code developed for this study is based on the Coastal and Regional Ocean COmmunity Model (CROCO), which is built upon the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS; Shchepetkin and McWilliams, 2005)
Summary
Seasonal sea ice cover in polar and subpolar seas is an important mediator of heat, moisture, and momentum exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean and an indicator of short- and long-term changes in weather and climate. The recent, advanced models, in which a hydrodynamic model with evolution equations for temperature and salinity is coupled with transport equations describing the dynamics and thermodynamics of several crystal size classes (Holland and Feltham, 2005; Heorton et al, 2017; Rees Jones and Wells, 2018), are based on seminal works by Daly (1984), Omstedt and Svensson (1984), and Svensson and Omstedt (1994, 1998) Their models were one-dimensional (1D), i.e., simulating the evolution of frazil volume fraction in a single water column, but included a whole range of mechanisms accompanying frazil formation, including the initial seeding, thermodynamic growth, flocculation, and secondary nucleation.
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