Abstract
The Henipavirus genus contains two highly lethal viruses, the Hendra and Nipah viruses and one, recently discovered, apparently nonpathogenic member; Cedar virus. These three, negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, are hosted by fruit bats and use EphrinB2 receptors for entry into cells. The Hendra and Nipah viruses are zoonotic pathogens that emerged in the middle of 90s and have caused severe, and often fatal, neurologic and/or respiratory diseases in both humans and different animals; including spillover into equine and porcine species. Development of relevant models is critical for a better understanding of viral pathogenesis, generating new diagnostic tools, and assessing anti-viral therapeutics and vaccines. This review summarizes available data on several animal models where natural and/or experimental infection has been demonstrated; including pteroid bats, horses, pigs, cats, hamsters, guinea pigs, ferrets, and nonhuman primates. It recapitulates the principal features of viral pathogenesis in these animals and current knowledge on anti-viral immune responses. Lastly it describes the recently characterized murine animal model, which provides the possibility to use numerous and powerful tools available for mice to further decipher henipaviruses immunopathogenesis, prophylaxis, and treatment. The utility of different models to analyze important aspects of henipaviruses-induced disease in humans, potential routes of transmission, and therapeutic approaches are equally discussed.
Highlights
The Hendra and Nipah viruses (HeV and NiV) are recently emerged zoonotic viruses responsible for outbreaks of respiratory and neurological disease in livestock and humans
This cytokine was confirmed to play an important role in HeV pathogenesis as well, and it was demonstrated that the development of neurological signs in both NiV and HeV infection coincided with tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 production in hamsters [48,53]
The changing ecological pressures on flying foxes owing to deforestation, urban development, altered foraging, and behavioral patterns all play a role in the continuing reemergence of Henipavirus infections
Summary
The Hendra and Nipah viruses (HeV and NiV) are recently emerged zoonotic viruses responsible for outbreaks of respiratory and neurological disease in livestock and humans. Both are negative-sense single stranded RNA viruses and belong to the Henipavirus genus within the Paramyxoviridae family [1]. The development of adequate animal models is required for better comprehension of Henipavirus infection and their transmission as well as for the generation of efficient prevention and treatment. As these viruses are zoonotic, there are a number of different animal species susceptible to infection. This review discusses the major characteristics of animal models used to study HeV and NiV infection and summarizes the principal features of viral pathogenesis in the most commonly used models (Table 1)
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