Abstract
Rice is the staple food of most Asians, including Sri Lankans. It is cultivated extensively in the dry zonal regions in Sri Lanka such as the Polonnaruwa district, where the prevalence of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) is higher. We investigated the concentrations of potentially toxic heavy metal(loid)s in groundwater and locally produced rice and correlated their exposure with the prevalence of CKDu. We studied human health exposure risks such as total daily intake (TDI), hazard quotient, hazard index, and carcinogenic risk (CR) from the consumption of groundwater and rice. In well-water, the concentrations of heavy metal(loid)s, cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and lead (Pb) were below the World Health Organization (WHO) stipulated allowable limits. Except for Pb, contents of other heavy metal(loid) in all rice samples were lower than maximum permissible limits by the WHO (0.02 mg/kg). Twenty-three per cent (23%) of rice samples analyzed exceeded the permissible limit for TDI of Pb, and analysis of hazard index for Cd, As, and Pb revealed 26% of rice samples could result in a health risk through the consumption of rice in this population. Further, the outcome depicted no CR of Cd, As, and Pb by consuming rice in this study area. We recommended further studies and investigations to minimize or eliminate potential risks from chronic Pb exposure to consumers.
Highlights
During the past couple of decades, exposure to toxic-heavy metal(loid)s through groundwater and food has garnered attention in Sri Lanka and elsewhere
Following analysis, elevated levels of ammonia were detected in dry zone water, which is attributed to contamination of water with fallen leaves or ammonia-based agrochemicals used in this region resulting elevated pH values
The present study demonstrated drinking water from wells in chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) endemic areas is safe, with reference to heavy metal(loid)s exposure
Summary
During the past couple of decades, exposure to toxic-heavy metal(loid)s through groundwater and food has garnered attention in Sri Lanka and elsewhere. This is in part due to the expanding chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) in dry zone regions, mostly affecting male paddy farmers in the north central province (NCP) in Sri Lanka. Considering the published data, environmental exposure to multiple risk factors over time, Heavy Metal(loid)s Exposure and CKDu is considered to be the main etiology for CKDu incidents in Sri Lanka (Wimalawansa, 2016; Wimalawansa and Dissanayake, 2019). No study to date has supported this hypothesis (Vlahos et al, 2018; Nanayakkara et al, 2019; Wimalawansa and Dissanayake, 2019)
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