Abstract
Penguins face a wide range of threats. Most observed population changes have been negative and have happened over the last 60 years. Today, populations of 11 of the 18 penguin species are decreasing. Here we present a review that synthesizes details of threats faced by the world’s 18 species of penguins. We discuss alterations to their environment at both breeding sites on land and at sea where they forage. The major drivers of change appear to be climate, and food web alterations by marine fisheries. In addition, we also consider other critical and/or emerging threats, namely human disturbance near nesting sites, pollution due to oil, plastics and chemicals such as mercury and persistent organic compounds. Finally, we assess the importance of emerging pathogens and diseases on the health of penguins. We suggest that in the context of climate change, habitat degradation, introduced exotic species and resource competition with fisheries, successful conservation outcomes will require new and unprecedented levels of science and advocacy. Successful conservation stories of penguin species across their geographical range have occurred where there has been concerted effort across local, national and international boundaries to implement effective conservation planning.
Highlights
Penguins are one of the most iconic taxonomic groups of wild animals, with similar appeal to polar bears, humpback whales, orangutans, and giant pandas
We compile new information and new perspectives elaborating upon the review of Trathan et al (2015). We identify those threats that are specific, as well as common to all species, and propose mitigation measures that should help protect these species
Strong El Niño events, which are expected to increase in frequency as a result of climate change (Yeh et al, 2009), can cause abrupt shifts in prey distribution with potentially dramatic consequences for seabirds, as demonstrated by the population crashes experienced by Humboldt and Galápagos penguins in 1982–1983 and 1997–1998 (Hays, 1986; Paredes and Zavalaga, 1998; Vargas et al, 2006)
Summary
Penguins are one of the most iconic taxonomic groups of wild animals, with similar appeal to polar bears, humpback whales, orangutans, and giant pandas. To this end, Trathan et al (2015) identified pollution, habitat loss, introduction of alien species into their habitats, fishing, and climate change as critical threats to the conservation of penguin populations worldwide.
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