Abstract
Risk of predation is an evolutionary force that affects behaviors of virtually all animals. In this study, we examined how habitat selection by roe deer was affected by risk of predation by Eurasian lynx – the main predator of roe deer in Scandinavia. Specifically, we compared how habitat selection by roe deer varied (1) before and after lynx re-established in the study area and (2) in relation to habitat-specific risk of predation by lynx. All analyses were conducted at the spatial and temporal scales of home ranges and seasons. We did not find any evidence that roe deer avoided habitats in which the risk of predation by lynx was greatest and information-theoretic model selection showed that re-colonization by lynx had limited impact on habitat selection by roe deer despite lynx predation causing 65% of known mortalities after lynx re-colonized the area. Instead we found that habitat selection decreased when habitat availability increased for 2 of 5 habitat types (a pattern referred to as functional response in habitat selection). Limited impact of re-colonization by lynx on habitat selection by roe deer in this study differs from elk in North America altering both daily and seasonal patterns in habitat selection at the spatial scales of habitat patches and home ranges when wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park. Our study thus provides further evidence of the complexity by which animals respond to risk of predation and suggest that it may vary between ecosystems and predator-prey constellations.
Highlights
Risk of predation is an evolutionary force that affects behaviors of virtually all animals [1]
Habitat selection by roe deer at these scales varied between habitats and in relation to habitat availability in old forests and bogs, whereas the relationship between habitat selection and habitat availability at these scales was unclear for clear cuts, young forests, and middle-aged forests given that the slope estimates were not different from zero in these habitats (Figure 1); u/r-ratios increased by 0.21 ± 0.08 in old forests and 0.17 ± 0.12 in bogs when habitat availability increased by 10%, whereas the slope estimates were 0.07 ± 0.11, 0.004 ± 0.08, and -0.001 ± 0.07 for clear cuts, young forests, and middleaged forests, respectively, when habitat availability increased by 10%
This study showed that re-colonization by lynx had limited impact on habitat selection of roe deer at the spatial and temporal scales of home ranges and seasons despite lynx predation causing 65% of known mortalities after lynx re-colonized the study area
Summary
Risk of predation is an evolutionary force that affects behaviors of virtually all animals [1]. Recent returns of large carnivores in Europe and North America have sparked considerable interest in how ungulates respond behaviorally to these predators and the risk that they pose Habitat selection by ungulates is often dictated by factors such as risk of predation, forage distribution, competition, and individual variation (see Kittle et al [12] and references therein). Risk of predation has strong impact on habitat selection by elk (Cervus canadensis) in North America where recent reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone National Park has had considerable impact on both daily and seasonal patterns in habitat selection by elk [2,13]. The influence of risk of predation on habitat selection by ungulates in other ecosystems and different predators is poorly known (but see Ratikainen et al [6] for daily patterns in habitat selection of roe deer Capreolus capreolus)
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