Growth of Higher Education and its Determining Factors in Cambodia

A major policy change was made in 1997 when the Royal Government of Cambodia began to privatize higher education institutions (HEIs). As a result of this reform, there were 189 HEIs in 2024, up significantly from just 8 in the late 1990s. To uphold and ensure the quality of higher education, the Accreditation Committee of Cambodia was established in 2003 as a formal legal mechanism for accreditation. Student Service is essential for improving higher education quality and students’ learning outcomes. Student Services was the fifth of nine standard criteria used to assess the quality of higher education in Cambodia. However, researchers and relevant higher education sectors have not yet shown interest in the student service area in the higher education system in Cambodia. This qualitative research study aims to explore stakeholders involved in supporting student services in higher education in Cambodia. The semi-structured interview was deployed with a purposive sampling of ten key informants from relevant institutions. This interview was in a face-to-face format. The key finding of this research revealed that seven stakeholders support student service in Cambodia's higher education. They are parent ministry, industry and community, development partner, higher education institutions, parent and guardians, religion, and student and alumni. Based on the findings, enhancing and maintaining student service quality requires the involvement of all stakeholders, high commitment, cohesive cooperation, and the upholding of student interests. Particularly, higher education institutions (HEIs) should prioritize creating a supportive environment that facilitates seamless student service processes.

PurposeThe purpose of the article is to examine the motivation of the academics in a developing country, Cambodia, which is an under-researched country in order to look into the satisfaction level of the academics in various aspects of academic profession. This study helps inform policy makers and other stakeholders in higher education in Cambodia about the current status quo of academic profession in Cambodia, which acts to impede the quality of higher education in this country.Design/methodology/approachThis study employed a survey design to examine the motivation of academics in a periphery country, Cambodia. The result from an online survey via Microsoft Form of 278 academics currently working at three public universities and four private universities across the country revealed that academics in higher education institutions in Cambodia were satisfied with their job (Mean = 4.1, SD = 0.74) and the organizational culture and value (Mean = 3.9, SD = 0.77), but dissatisfied with their salary (Mean = 3.1, SD = 0.90). The mean score of other variables also skewed toward happiness, yet this mean score remained low (between 3.2 and 3.8). Furthermore, the result from t-test and one-way ANOVA showed no significant difference in job satisfaction between public and private academics and among academics from different employment statuses. Job satisfaction of academics in this study did not come from salary or work environment, but may have come from the flexibility and status quo of academic career in Cambodia, in which the majority of academics have additional job while many others (38% of the participants) treat teaching as their secondary job and at the same time maintain the title as academic or even professor, which is relatively well-respected in Cambodia society, despite poor salary. The complexity of academic career in this context may present major setbacks to the quality of higher education in this periphery country.FindingsThis study revealed that although academics in higher education in Cambodia were satisfied with their job and organizational culture and value, they were not satisfied with their work environment and salary. The result from this study indicated that the reason why salary did not determine the satisfaction level of academics was that most of the academics in Cambodia higher education have additional job or business in addition to teaching. Moreover, they have other full-time jobs outside higher education and they can still teach part-time to earn extra income.Research limitations/implicationsSince this study generated only 278 responses from academics, these data remain small compared to the whole population. Thus, this may affect the generalization of the finding to the larger population.Practical implicationsThis study helps fill the existing gaps in literature on higher education in Cambodia and the findings from this study can be used to make informed decision regarding quality of higher education in Cambodia.Social implicationsHigher education is a social institution that helps maintain professionalization of all professions and improve students competitiveness. Improving quality of higher education means that academics themselves need to be professional and ethical toward teaching. This research pointed out the unethical practices of academic procession, which in turn, de-professionalize academics and downgrade the quality of higher education in Cambodia.Originality/valueThis study provides a fresh insights into the motivation of academics in Cambodia higher education. This study also provides the framework for academic motivation in a developing country.

ABSTRACTThis paper discusses a number of key issues in English education and research in Cambodia. Multiple studies on Cambodia often suggest that English is a key component required to transform the standard of life of common Cambodians (Clayton ). To understand the phenomenon of the ever‐increasing demand for English in the country, we conducted a series of semi‐structured interviews with teachers and students followed by a needs analysis of English language learners in a tertiary institution. Our findings suggest that these future employees have a great enthusiasm for learning English mostly mediated by economic imperatives, in a changing world that prioritizes proficiency in the English language. Moreover, it was also found that research in higher education in Cambodia has gained increasing interest among English lecturers and students in the Cambodian academic community.

Higher education in Cambodia needs a reform to improve the sector’s quality and development. Over the past few decades, although Cambodian higher education has experienced impressive progress, particularly in terms of institutional expansion and student enrollment, the sector needs to undergo a reform to move forward in a faster and more sustainable manner. In this editorial, we aim to offer ideas on how the higher education sector in Cambodia can be reformed to transform and bring it to a higher level.

The Royal Government of Cambodia envisions transforming the country into a middle-income nation by 2030 and a developed nation by 2050, focusing on building human capital to foster a knowledge-based society. As a result, Cambodia's number of higher education institutions (HEIs) has grown significantly over the past decade. Notably, student services have been identified as the fifth criterion to ensure that Cambodian higher education meets regional and global standards. However, up to now, there has been much research focused on student services in Cambodia HEIs. This study, therefore, strives to fill this gap by identifying the benefits of student services in Cambodia's higher education sector. This study explores the impact of student services on student learning outcomes in higher education in Cambodia, an area that has received limited attention from researchers and relevant education sectors. Using a qualitative approach, purposive sampling was used to conduct semi-structured interviews with 38 key informants from various institutions. The interviews included face-to-face discussions with key informants and focus group discussions with students. The research identified four main benefits of student services: academic development, personal development, career development, and citizenship development. The findings suggest that enhancing student service quality is essential for HEIs to create a supportive environment that promotes student learning and ensures overall HEI quality. Key recommendations are given for policymakers and HEI stakeholders in Cambodia based on the findings, particularly the potential advantages for HEIs in using student services to guarantee their financial stability and greater quality of education.

Higher education is essential for any nation. Countries that recognize the significance of higher education focus on improving the quality of their higher education. This article focuses on the role of universities in promoting reforms in higher education in Cambodia and how the universities have failed to play this critical role. It highlights how Cambodian universities have been unable to contribute to meaningful reforms in the higher education sector. It also discusses vital challenges to higher education development, such as inadequate access to higher education, politicization and commercialization of the sub-sector, and insufficient professional development for university teachers. The article concludes with recommendations on how Cambodian universities can contribute to accelerating reforms to improve higher education in Cambodia.

Higher education in Cambodia has experienced positive and impressive progress over the last few decades. However, more efforts are needed to bring about further positive changes and new developments to the sector. This article aims to discuss key challenges facing higher education in Cambodia in relation to the need to promote its quality. The article brings to the fore six major challenges, including limited resources and infrastructure, political influence, weak institutional and sectoral governance, consequences of higher education privatization, low academic salaries, and limited opportunities for continuing professional development (CPD). The article also provides a set of recommendations to address these challenges, focusing on introducing a mechanism to improve resources and infrastructure, keeping political interference to a minimum, improving institutional and sectoral governance, bifurcating universities into research-intensive and teaching-intensive universities, introducing an improvement or reform to incentive and salary systems, and promoting CPD engagement among Cambodian university teachers. The article concludes with an argument for a reform of the Cambodian higher education sector to bring it to a higher stage of development.

Higher education in Cambodia has made noteworthy strides in recent years. However, as the country experiences rapidly evolving economic needs and technological advancements, the mismatch between the skills graduates possess and those demanded by the job market remains a focal point of discussion. This article aims to discuss the issue of skills mismatches in higher education in Cambodia. It provides an understanding of skills mismatches in Cambodian higher education and delves into the major causes of this pressing issue, including limited public investment in higher education, limited involvement of concerned stakeholders, limited use of up-to-date curricula and teaching methods, limited English proficiency, lack of career guidance for students, and a low level of research engagement among Cambodian academics. The article offers solutions to address this pressing issue by emphasizing potential measures, such as providing sufficient orientation to students on the selection of majors in higher education, enhancing government-university-industry linkages, establishing a clear roadmap for improving higher education quality, modernizing curricula and teaching methods, encouraging learner autonomy and a culture of lifelong learning, promoting diversity and inclusion in higher education, enhancing the circulation of information about the job market and industrial needs, and improving the quality and research capacity of faculty members. The article argues that addressing skills mismatches in Cambodian higher education requires a genuine reform and concerted efforts from all concerned stakeholders. It concludes with suggestions for future research.

Compared with those of its more advanced ASEAN peers, Cambodia’s higher education system is still in its infancy. Its higher education governance, financing and financial management are neither sophisticated nor robust enough to deliver high-quality, relevant higher education to the society and economy. Higher education institutions have mushroomed amid inadequate regulation, supervision and support to meet national needs. The current legal framework for higher education has perpetuated an inefficient, fragmented and reactive regulatory regime. Similarly, the development of the subsector has been dictated by a distorted market system without comprehensive policy or well-thought-out state intervention. This study explores the current governance of higher education in Cambodia. It overviews conceptual discussions and examines key governance issues in public higher education. It reflects also on practices across Southeast Asia to draw academic and policy implications for improving public higher education governance in Cambodia.

Understanding stakeholders' perspectives on recent initiatives to promote research and development in higher education in Cambodia

The COVID-19 pandemic has wreaked havoc on the entire world. While causing massive disruptions, COVID-19 has served as a catalyst for the digital transformation of higher education in Cambodia. This chapter discusses how the pandemic has provided opportunities for the digital transformation of Cambodian higher education. The chapter focuses on opportunities related to blended learning, online continuous professional development, and digital higher education. It also examines key challenges to the digitalization of Cambodian higher education, including limited information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure and accessibility; limited digital knowledge, skills, and experience; unfavorable attitudes toward online learning; issues with the curriculum and assessment; and a lack of preparedness for ICT-enhanced education. The chapter then discusses the way forward for key stakeholders in higher education in Cambodia to support the momentum for higher education digitalization and further accelerate the digital transformation of Cambodian higher education.

In alignment with the Royal Government of Cambodia's Vision 2050 and response to Industry 4.0 demands, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports has initiated higher education reforms to build human capital. Despite the rapid increase in higher education institutions, from 1 in 1979 to 189 by 2022–2023, student services remain underdeveloped and inadequately supported. This qualitative study explores key challenges in implementing student services across Cambodian HEIs and examines strategic recommendations to improve support systems. Using purposive sampling, 67 participants from seven stakeholder groups were interviewed through semi-structured, one-on-one, and focus group discussions. Thematic analysis identified challenges such as assessment and attention mechanisms, structured and action plans, human and digital infrastructure, physical infrastructure and facilities, budget constraints, and student perspective. To address these issues, the study proposes a strategic and collaborative approach, involving parent ministries, industry and communities, development partners, religion, parents and guardians, and institutional actors. This study offers practical, stakeholder-informed recommendations to enhance student services, which are vital to improving student success, institutional resilience, and the overall quality of higher education in Cambodia.

This article examines the current trends and challenges in developing higher education in Cambodia, offering insights for enhancing its quality. While the Cambodian higher education system has made noticeable developments in the last few decades, it still faces significant obstacles, including inadequate facilities, unequal educational standards, and limited access for marginalized groups. The article highlights the increasing importance of digitalization, science, technology, engineering, mathematics education, and technical training, which demand qualified educators and innovative teaching methods. It emphasizes the need for institutional autonomy, improved faculty qualifications, and outcome-based learning approaches. Furthermore, the article advocates for integrating digital technologies and robust quality assurance mechanisms to enhance transparency and accountability in higher education, thereby fostering a more effective and equitable educational environment. The article is a valuable resource for policymakers and educators aiming to foster a more effective educational landscape in Cambodia by identifying prevailing challenges and useful suggestions.

Cambodian higher education finance is archaic and inappropriate for creating a robust and responsive higher education system. The customary practice of line item budgeting is also obsolete. Many countries in the region have long moved towards block grants and some have recently incorporated performance-based funding. In Cambodia, bureaucratic financial management has created many loopholes and obstacles, including slow disbursement of funds, excessive and rigid regulation, and ineffective and efficient use of resources. However, any move towards new funding modalities must be aligned with efforts to improve institutional capacity as well as strong post-audit and monitoring systems. The aim of this study is to explore the current financial management and funding of higher education in Cambodia. It examines financing mechanisms, funding sources, tuition fee issues, scholarships, student loans and subsidies, revenue generation, and expenditure mechanisms. The study also reflects on practices in other Southeast Asian countries to draw policy implications for Cambodia.

This research identifies the external historical influences on higher education in Cambodia and how this has affected local traditional values and socio-cultural perspectives. It provides an overview of the major contemporary Western neoliberal influences in this context. A critical review of the literature explores how traditional values and practices have interacted with these modern external influences. The paper finds that an emerging hybrid model has evolved in post-conflict Cambodia, formed via different development agendas, reflecting a struggle with traditional values, cultural heritage and history. The paper outlines a policy position for higher learning reform reflecting this hybrid model that advocates for traditional cultural, and historical influences to be promoted alongside a drive for modernization.