Abstract
Groundwater has been used everywhere in the world for a long time because of its easy accessibility and good quality. In urban areas, groundwater as a source of domestic, commercial and industrial water has greatly contributed to the development of cities. Groundwater in urban areas is sometimes contaminated with multiple contaminants at higher concentrations than in rural areas. For example, one of the most prevalent contaminants in urban groundwater, nitrate, is commonly the product of agricultural runoff due to the use of fertilisers in rural areas. In urban areas, however, fertilisers in agricultural fields are rather minor sources, but leaky sewage, septic tanks, industrial spillages, landfill leachates, and fertilisers used in gardens and parks are other, more common sources of nitrate. Those sources of nitrate can also become sources of other hazardous substances or health-related microorganisms. Other than nitrogen, there are many contaminants in urban groundwater including arsenic, fluoride, heavy metals, and volatile organic carbons. Several kinds of pharmaceuticals, N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), and perfluorinated surfactants (PFSs) can also be detected in urban groundwaters.
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