Greenhouse gas emissions and net carbon sequestration of "Grain for Green" Program in China.

Forests play an important role in climate change mitigation and concentration of CO2 reduction in the atmosphere. Forest management, especially afforestation and forest protection, could increase carbon stock of forests significantly. Carbon sequestration rate of afforestation ranges from 0.04 to 7.52 t C·hm-2·a-1, while that of forest protection is 0.33-5.20 t C·hm-2·a-1. At the same time, greenhouse gas (GHG) is generated within management boundary due to the production and transportation of the materials consumed in relevant activities of afforestation and forest management. In addition, carbon leakage is also generated outside boundary from activity shifting, market effects and change of environments induced by forest management. In this review, we summarized the definition of emission sources of GHG, monitoring methods, quantity and rate of greenhouse gas emissions within boundary of afforestation and forest management. In addition, types, monitoring methods and quantity of carbon leakage outside boundary of forest management were also analyzed. Based on the reviewed results of carbon sequestration, we introduced greenhouse gas emissions within boundary and carbon leakage, net carbon sequestration as well as the countervailing effects of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon leakage to carbon sequestration. Greenhouse gas emissions within management boundary counteract 0.01%-19.3% of carbon sequestration, and such counteraction could increase to as high as 95% considering carbon leakage. Afforestation and forest management have substantial net carbon sequestration benefits, when only taking direct greenhouse gas emissions within boundary and measurable carbon leakage from activity shifting into consideration. Compared with soil carbon sequestration measures in croplands, afforestation and forest management is more advantageous in net carbon sequestration and has better prospects for application in terms of net mitigation potential. Along with the implementation of the new stage of key ecological stewardship projects in China as well as the concern on carbon benefits brought by projects, it is necessary to make efforts to increase net carbon sequestration via reducing greenhouse gas emissions and carbon leakage. Rational planning before start-up of the projects should be promoted to avoid carbon emissions due to unnecessary consumption of materials and energy. Additionally, strengthening the control and monitoring on greenhouse gas emissions and carbon leakage during the implementation of projects are also advocated.

Modeling the Impacts of Soil Organic Carbon Content of Croplands on Crop Yields in China

The Chinese Grain for Green Programme: Assessing the carbon sequestered via land reform

Past and future carbon sequestration benefits of China’s grain for green program

Vegetation carbon input moderates the effects of climate change on topsoil organic carbon in China

Climate change affects soil organic carbon (SOC) and contributes to the uncertainty of terrestrial carbon sinks in the global carbon budget. With changes in vegetation growth and the regulation of its carbon input, the feedback of topsoil SOC to climate change is likely to become more complex at broad geographical scales. China has experienced noticeable changes in climate and surface greening in recent decades, and these changes have effectively influenced the dynamics of topsoil SOC. However, the potential role of vegetation carbon inputs in regulating and buffering climate change impacts on SOC in the context of current ecological restoration is still poorly understood. Therefore, to solve these problems, on the basis of the long-term satellite remote sensing data from 2000 to 2019, multiple linear regression and pathway analyses to investigate the dominant role of different climate factors and vegetation net primary productivity (NPP) on topsoil SOC changes in China, and further reveal the potential role of vegetation carbon inputs in regulating and buffering the effects of climate change on topsoil SOC. The results show that the overall trend of increase in topsoil SOC in China from 2000 to 2019 is significant (P < 0.05), and most regions show a good development trend in the future, except for some areas in the Central South, East, and Northeast regions, where a risk of degradation exists. Relative to climate change, the dominant areas of NPP impact on topsoil SOC in China occupy a considerable proportion, especially in the North, Northwest, and Central South regions, with area proportions of 68.15%, 49.52%, and 47.99%, respectively. Importantly, the indirect positive impacts of climate change on changes in topsoil SOC in China through vegetation carbon input offset the direct negative impacts in most areas. That is, over the past 20 years, increases in temperature and precipitation have led to decreases in topsoil SOC in most of China, whereas the ultimate net effect has been to increase topsoil SOC by promoting vegetation carbon input, particularly in the Loess Plateau region. Our study demonstrates that considering only the effects of climate change on SOC, while ignoring possible changes in carbon transfer from plants to soils, largely reduces the reliability of assessments of SOC stocks and their changes. These results have important implications for enhanced prediction of future SOC changes and provide references for terrestrial carbon sinks management strategies in the context of response to climate change.Keywords: Topsoil organic carbon, Climate change, vegetation carbon input, Pathway analysis, China.

The purpose of this research was to determine the state and regional mineral status of Louisiana forages and beef cattle. Louisiana beef cattle operations (n = 25) were sampled and divided into seven geographical regions, including the northwest (NW), northeast (NE), central (CE), southwest (SW), south central (SC), Florida parishes (FP) and southeast (SE) regions. Over a two year period, water and soil samples were collected from each operation annually, forage samples were collected quarterly in Aug to Sep, Nov to Dec, Feb to Mar and May to June and bovine serum samples were collected twice annually in the fall and spring seasons. The highest (P < 0.05) average regional water K and S concentrations were observed in the SE region and water Ca and Mg concentrations were the highest (P < 0.05) in the NE, CE and SE regions. However, all water mineral concentrations, with exception of Na, were lower than the reported upper desired levels considered safe for livestock consumption (Socha et al., 2003). Similar to water, soil Ca, Mg and K concentrations in our study, were higher (P < 0.05) in the SE compared to all other regions. Soil Cu concentrations were below critical levels in the CE region and all soil Zn concentrations, except the SE region, were lower than reported critical levels indicating soil deficiency. The average forage concentration for each mineral were: Ca (0.42%), P (0.28%), Mg (0.21%), K (1.83%), Na (0.10%), S (0.32%), Cu (8.12 ppm), Fe (323.46 ppm), Mn (254.85 ppm) and Zn (41.29 ppm). In addition, only mean forage Cu concentrations were lower than minimum requirements and regional forage K (NW region), Mg (FP region), Na (CE region) and S (NW and SE regions) concentrations were higher (P < 0.05) than other regions. The average regional serum K concentration in the NE region was higher (P < 0.05) than all other regions. Average bovine serum mineral concentrations in Louisiana were: Ca (9.02 mg/100 ml), P (13.62 mg/100 ml), Mg (1.92 mg/100 ml), K (21.66 mg/100 ml), Na (303.30 mg/100 ml), S (103.31 mg/100 ml), Cu (0.63 µg/ml), Fe (7.44 µg/ml), Zn (1.28 µg/ml), Mn (8.08 ng/ml) and Se (64.48 ng/ml). Furthermore, of these minerals, serum Mg, Na, Cu and Mn concentrations were lower than critical levels, indicative of deficiency.

Carbon sequestration benefits of the grain for Green Program in the hilly red soil region of southern China

Carbon storage and carbon sequestration potential under the Grain for Green Program in Henan Province, China

Nutrient management plans for livestock operations should account for rates and timing of manure application to cropland, as well as how manure is integrated with other nutrient sources. Little is known, however, about actual nutrient management behavior of farmers, and what changes may be needed for farmers to adhere to nutrient management regulations. Detailed records were kept on fertilizer, manure, and legume N and P applications on 33 representative Wisconsin dairy farms during the period October 2003 through September 2004. Average available N applications ranged from 118 to 200 kg ha−1 of which 40% was derived from fertilizer, 30% from manure and 30% from previous legume. On a regional basis, the following percentages of corn (Zea mays L.) area fell within available N application categories of 0, 1 to 80, 81 to 160, 161 to 240 and &gt;240 kg ha−1, respectively: in the Northeast (NE) region, &lt;1, 26, 33, 21, and 19% of the total corn area surveyed (504 ha); in the South–Central (SC) region, &lt;1, 39, 41, 14, and 5% of the corn area (576 ha); and in the Southwest (SW) region, 0, 31, 45, 14, and 10% of the corn area (180 ha). Average available P applications ranged from 16 to 18 kg ha−1, of which 65% came from manure and 35% from fertilizer. On a regional basis, the following percentages of surveyed cropland area fell within available P application categories of 0, 1 to 24, 25 to 48, 49 to 72 and &gt;72 kg ha−1, respectively: in the NE region, 30, 50, 15, 4, and 1% of the cropland area (1340 ha); in the SC region, 23, 54, 17, 5, and 1% of the cropland area (1168 ha); and in the SW region, 41, 48, 8, 1, and 2% of the cropland area (542 ha). Of the total cropland area (ha) across all regions that received manure during winter, 7 to 25% were within regulated surface water buffer zones. In the NE, SC, and SW regions, 100, 83, and 63% of winter‐spread cropland area received available P application rates &lt;24 kg ha−1, the 1‐yr crop P replacement ceiling set by State regulations. Regional differences in nutrient management behavior due to topography, soils and other factors should be used to better target efforts aimed at improving fertilizer‐manure‐legume management on Wisconsin dairy farms.

Decades of reckless deforestation have caused serious soil erosion and land desertification issues in the Loess Plateau (LP). “Grain for Green” Program (GFGP), one of the world’s largest ecological restoration projects, is crucial to improve the ecological environment. Previous studies have demonstrated that GFGP lowers soil erosion in the LP. However, there are trade-offs and synergies between ecological services. Does strengthening soil conservation prevent enhancing other ecosystem services? Consequently, can the GFGP improve many ecological services simultaneously? This study compares changes in NDVI prior to and following the implementation of the GFGP in LP to the enhancement of ecosystem services. During the research period, the LP’s overall vegetation cover rose significantly, particularly in the GFGP’s major counties. Significant improvements were made to ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, soil conservation, and habitat quality. The GFGP enhanced the synergistic linkages between ecological services. The implementation of the GFGP decreased water yield, suggesting trade-offs with other ecosystem services. Additionally, we investigate regional trade-offs/synergies between ecosystem services and their influencing factors, which were influenced by topographic and climatic variables. To maximize the benefits of ecological restoration efforts, we need a deeper understanding of the relationships between ecosystem services and the mechanisms that drive them. Thus, policymakers can scientifically exert control over local influences on ecosystem services, either by boosting the provision of specific services or by limiting specific influences in order to maintain ecosystem stability.

The temperate steppe experienced degradation and desertification as a result of long-term heavy grazing and excessive reclamation. Some major ecological projects, such as the Grain for Green Program (GGP) and Grazing Exclosure (GE), have been implemented to promote ecological restoration in grassland ecosystems. With the goal of carbon neutrality, the effects of the GGP and GE on grassland carbon sequestration need to be further explored. Based on soil data from the second soil survey in the 1980s, a field survey in 2021, and the land-use/land-cover datasets of 2000–2018, we characterized the changes in soil C stock following grazing exclosure, analyzed the effect of GGP on land-use changes and soil C accumulation, and then estimated the overall grassland carbon sequestration in Ningxia on the Loess Plateau of China. From 2000 to 2018, GE increased the grassland SOCD from 49.60 Mg ha−1 to 90.71 Mg ha−1, and the C stock increased by 65.55 T g. Under the influence of the GGP, 347.62 km2 of cultivated land was converted into grasslands, increasing the grassland soil carbon sequestration by 1.31 T g. Subsequently, the grassland organic carbon storage increased by 66.86 T g, which accounted for approximately 4.26% of the grassland organic carbon storage in the Loess Plateau of China. In the southern Loess hilly area, which experienced high precipitation and low temperatures, grasslands increased by 95.55 km2; the average organic carbon density increased 46.95 Mg ha−1 due to a rate of increase of 2.61 Mg ha−1 yr−1; and the corresponding values for those in the middle arid zone were 36.25 Mg ha−1 and 2.01 Mg ha−1 yr−1, with grasslands decreasing by 147.41 km2. The follow-up policies of the GGP and GE should be implemented and improved according to local conditions to improve the carbon sink and ecological services in grassland ecosystems.

Despite growing efforts to improve access to vaccination, millions of children, especially in developing countries, have not received a single dose of diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTP) vaccine. Consequently, they are often called zero-dose children (ZDC). With limited health resources, prioritising communities for rapid and mass zero-dose catch-up vaccination in missed communities to avert epidemic outbreaks is complicated by unreliable denominators used to compute vaccination coverages. Incorporating other indicators of access and utilisation of vaccination services can help with identifying and ranking missed communities based on the likelihood of finding ZDC. We described the process of generating a scoring method to rank health areas in Cameroon based on their likelihood of containing ZDC. We used geospatial analysis to compute and aggregate health area characteristics, including hard-to-reach (HTR) areas (defined as areas of settlement above a one- (for urban areas) or 15-kilometre radius (for rural areas) beyond a vaccinating health facility), amount of area covered by slums and new area settlement, and percentage of children unvaccinated for DTP-1. We attributed a weight based on the ability to limit accessibility or utilisation of vaccination services to each characteristic and computed the score as a weighted average of health area characteristics. The health area score ranged from 0 to 1, with higher scores representing a higher likelihood of containing ZDC. We stratified the analysis by rural and urban health areas. We observed substantial district and regional variations in health area scores, with hotspots health areas (administrative level 4) observed in the Far North (0.83), North (0.81), Adamawa (0.80), East (0.75), and South West (0.67) regions. The Adamawa region had the highest percentage of health areas with the highest score (78%), followed by the East (50%), West (48%), and North (46%) regions. For most regions (Far North, South, South West, Littoral, West, and North West), DTP-1 contributed the most to the score. However, HTR settlement areas within a health area contributed substantially to the overall score in the East, North, and Adamawa regions. We found substantial variations in health area scores with hotspots in the Far North, North, Adamawa, East, and South West regions. Although DTP-1 could be used as an indicator to identify health areas with ZDC for most communities, HTR settlement area was a valuable indicator in ranking priority health areas in the East, North, and Adamawa regions, further emphasising the need to consider other indicators before prioritisation.

ABSTRACTThe relationship between spring soil moisture (SM) and summer precipitation in East China (EC) was examined using monthly temperature and precipitation data and ERA‐40 SM data. EC was divided into five different climate regions to investigate how SM‐precipitation correlations vary under different climatic conditions. Both local and remote impacts of spring SM in EC were assessed. It was found that spring SM had significant correlations with summer precipitation in the East, Southeast, and Southwest regions, but not in the Northwest and Northeast region. This is possibly because correlations between summer precipitation and temperature (as a surrogate to SM–evaporation relationship) were statistically significant in the first three regions, but not in the Northwest and Northeast regions. Statistically significant positive correlations between SM and summer precipitation were found in the East and Southeast regions and statistically significant negative correlations were in the Southwest region. The negative SM‐precipitation relationship is possibly because the Southwest region is primarily an energy‐controlled regime. Significant SM‐precipitation correlations were usually associated with strong SM persistence and precipitation autocorrelation. Our results suggest that strong correlation between spring SM and summer precipitation might be due to the combination of SM–precipitation interactions and precipitation autocorrelation. Our study also demonstrated that there are strong temporal variations in SM–precipitation relationships in the regions where significant correlations occurred. May SM had significant positive correlations (approximately 0.6) with summer precipitation over most of the study period in East region. Strong negative correlation (approximately −0.6) was found in Southwest during 1980s‐1990s due to strong SM persistence and strong precipitation autocorrelation in the same period. This suggested that SM–precipitation relationships vary over time even in regions with strong coupling. Multivariate regression analysis demonstrated that SM persistence had the largest contribution to summer precipitation variation in East region and April precipitation was the dominant predictor of summer precipitation variations in Southeast and Southwest regions. Statistical analysis of SM and precipitation relationships should consider both SM persistence and precipitation autocorrelation. Results from this study can be used to improve the predictability of droughts.

The Grain for Green Program (GGP) was the most all‐embracing program of ecological reconstruction implemented in China. To estimate carbon storages and carbon sequestration potentials of the GGP forests, the study presented in the paper collected data spanning from 1999 to 2010, such as tree species, tree planting area relevant to the GGP, empirical growth curves suitable for different planted tree species in China, as well as wood density (WD), biomass expansion factor (BEF), carbon fraction (CF) of different trees species, and estimated the carbon storages of the biomasses of GGP forests from 1999 to 2050. It showed that the total carbon storage of the biomass of GGP forests was 320.29 Tg upon the GGP completion in 2010; the total carbon sequestration is higher during the early GGP‐implementation stage than at the late GGP‐implementation stage, and the annual mean carbon sequestration of GGP forests was 26.69 Tg/year. The potential of GGP forests as carbon sink presented an increasing increment. In China, the potential increments of GGP forests as carbon sinks were estimated to be 397.34, 604.00, 725.53, and 808.90 Tg in 2020, 2030, 2040, and 2050, respectively, and the carbon sequestration rates were 1.72, 0.89, 0.52, and 0.36 Mg ha−1 year−1, respectively, corresponding to 2010s, 2020s, 2030s, and 2040s. Therefore, the GGP forests had bigger carbon sequestration capacities and potentials in China.