God, Ancient Israel

Abstract

In the Hebrew Bible, the term “God” (Hebrew ʾĕlōhîm or ʾĕlôah; Aramaic ʾĕlāh) typically indicates the supreme deity of ancient Israel. Biblical authors refer to this deity using a wide range of titles, descriptive terms, and metaphors that bring to light God’s various roles, activities, and attributes. God’s personal name, Yahweh, is revealed in theophany (Exod 3:13–15), is invoked in priestly blessings (Num 6:24–26), and introduces most prophetic oracles (“thus says the LORD”). This name must be treated with the utmost reverence (Deut 5:11), and in later Jewish tradition, it cannot even be uttered. Although many biblical texts make a sharp distinction between Yahweh and certain Canaanite deities (especially Baal), it is likely that the Israelite concept of divinity emerged from a Canaanite background and shared numerous common features with it, such as the belief in a divine council and the notion of God as a Divine Warrior. The earliest forms of Israelite religion did not exclude the belief in, or worship of, other deities, perhaps even a goddess (Asherah). More exclusive forms of monotheism probably emerged near the end of the monarchic period, if not later. The notion that Israel’s God is inherently invisible, immaterial, and uncircumscribable might be implied by the second commandment of the Decalogue. However, archaeological evidence suggests that the worship of Yahweh was not always and everywhere purely aniconic. Due to the complex and multifaceted nature of the topic, biblical scholars approach the study of ancient Israel’s God from a diversity of methodological perspectives (literary, historical, sociological, etc.) and use data gleaned from various sources (the Hebrew Bible, comparative ancient Near Eastern (ANE) texts, iconographic materials, and archaeological artifacts). In addition, the study of the nature, character, and activity of ancient Israel’s God is central to the whole task of Old Testament theology and is crucial for understanding the Jewish background of the New Testament.