Abstract
Penalty kicks in soccer provide a unique scenario in which to examine human choice behavior under competitive conditions. Here, we report two studies examining the tendency for soccer kickers to select the goal side with the largest area to the left or right of the goalkeeper’s veridical midline, when the goalkeeper stands marginally off-center. In Study I participants viewed realistic images of a soccer goal and goalkeeper with instructions to choose the left or right side of the goalmouth to best score a goal. We systematically displaced the goalkeeper’s position along the goal line; and, to simulate changes in the kicker’s viewing position, we systematically displaced the lateral position of the goalmouth in each image. While, overall, participants tended to choose the left over the right goal side, this preference was modulated by the goalkeeper’s position relative to the center of the goal and jointly on the lateral position of the goalmouth relative to the participants’ body midline. In Study II we analyzed 100 penalty shots from men’s world cup shoot-outs between the years 1982 to 2018. Again, we found a small tendency for kickers to aim the ball to the left goal side, but with barely any modulating effect of changes in the goalkeeper’s position and no effect of changes in the kicker’s position. In contrast to earlier claims that a goalkeeper may benefit by standing marginally to the left or right of the center of the goal to influence the direction of the kicker’s shot, our findings suggest that this is probably not a good strategy in elite football competitions.
Highlights
The work reported in this article concerns goal side selection of penalty shots in a laboratory soccer experiment and in men’s FIFA World Cup matches
Inspiration for this work derives from studies of the so-called ‘off-center’ effect in penalty kick scenarios – the tendency for penalty kickers to place the ball to the goal side with the greater area to the side of the goalkeeper, when the goalkeeper stands marginally off-center (Masters et al, 2007; Memmert et al, 2020; No€el et al, 2016; No€el, van der Kamp, & Memmert, 2015; No€el, van der Kamp, Weigelt, et al, 2015; Weigelt & Memmert, 2012; Weigelt et al, 2012)
We predicted that the proportion of left goal side selections would rise monotonically as the position of the goalkeeper was moved from left to right along the goal-line, and that selections would systematically depend on the joint position of both the goalkeeper and kicker
Summary
The work reported in this article concerns goal side selection of penalty shots in a laboratory soccer experiment and in men’s FIFA World Cup matches. An aim was to extend understanding of penalty kickers’ goal side selection in soccer by further examination of the influence of the goalkeeper’s position and by simultaneous examination of the initial starting, and viewing position of the kicker. There has been minimal research examining the influence of the goalkeeper’s position and, simultaneously, the initial viewing position of the kicker, on the kicker’s goal side selection of penalty kicks. Most kickers approach the ball at an angle that may in turn at least partially determine goal side selection. Goal side selection of penalty kicks in soccer as potentially influenced by the goalkeeper’s position may depend on the initial starting position of the kicker
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